OP  TflE 


JVo. 

Division 

Range 

Shelf. 


I 


^x4^- 


FARM  DRAINAGE. 


THE 

PRINCIPLES,  PROCESSES,  AND  EFFECTS 
DRAINING   LAND 

WITH    STONES,    WOOD,    PLOWS,    AND    OPEN    DITCHES, 
AND    ESPECIALLY   WITH  •  TILES  ; 

INOMTOING 

TABLES    OF    RAIN-FALL, 

EVAPORATION,    FILTRATION,   EXCAVATION,    CAPACITY  OF  PIPES;    COST  AND  NUMBER 
TO  THE  ACRE,  OF  TILES,  &C.,  AC., 

AND     MORE     THAN     IOO    ILLUSTRATIONS. 
BY 

HENRY   F.    FRENCH. 


"READ,  not  to  contradict  and  to  confute,  nor  to  believe  and  take  for  granted,  but  to 
weigh  arid  consider." — BACON. 

"  THE  first  Farmer  was  the  first  man,  and  all  nobility  rests  on  the  possession  and  use 
of  land."— EMERSON. 


NEW-YORK: 

ORANGE    JUDD    &    COMPANY. 
345   BROADWAY. 


\ 

\ 


ENTERED,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1859, 

BY    HENEY    F.    F  BENCH 

In  the  ClerVs   Office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States  in  and  for  the 
Southern  District  of  New  York. 


OP  MASSACHUSETTS, 

A   LOVEE    OF    AGRICULTURE,   AND   A  PROGRESSIVE    FARMER. 
WORDS  AND  WORKS  ARE   so   WELL   DEVOTED  TO   IMPROVE   THE 

OF  THOSE  WHO  CULTIVATE  THE  EARTH, 
IBIS  BOOK  is  INSCRIBED,  AS  A  TESTIMONIAL  OF  RESPECT  AND  PERSONAL  ESTEEM. 

BT  ira  FRIEND  AND  BROTHER, 

THE  4trraom. 


f  E  E  F  A  C  E. 


1  HE  Agriculture  of  America  has  seemed  to  me  to  de- 
mand some  light  upon  the  subject  of  Drainage ;  some 
work,  which,  with  an  exposition  of  the  various  theories, 
should  give  the  simplest  details  of  the  practice,  of  draining 
land.  This  treatise  is  an  attempt  to  answer  that  demand, 
and  to  give  to  the  farmers  of  our  country,  at  the  same 
time,  enough  of  scientific  principles  to  satisfy  intelligent 
inquiry,  and  plain  and  full  directions  for  executing  work 
in  the  field,  according  to  the  best  known  rules.  It  has 
been  my  endeavor  to  show  what  lands  in  America  require 
drainage,  and  how  to  drain  them  best,  at  least  expense ; 
to  explain  how  the  theories  and  the  practice  of  the  Old 
"World  require  modification  for  the  cheaper  lands,  the 
dearer  labor,  and  the  various  climate  of  the  New ;  and, 
finally,  to  suggest  how,  through  improved  implements  and 
processes,  the  inventive  genius  of  our  country  may  make 
the  brain  assist  and  relieve  the  labor  of  the  hand. 

"With  some  hope  that  my  humble  labors,  in  a  field  so 
broad,  may  not  have  entirely  failed  of  their  object,  this 
work  is  oifered  to  the  attention  of  American  farmers. 

E,  F.  F. 

THE  PINES,  EXETER,  N.  H.,  March,  1859. 


LIST    OF    ENGEAYINGS. 


PAGE. 

Elkington's  Mode 32,  88 

Ditch  and  Bore-hole 85 

Xeythorpe  System 42 

Theory  of  Springs 50-84 

Plug  Drainage 106,  107 

Mole  Plow 108 

Wedge  Drains Ill 

Shoulder  Drains Ill 

Larch  Tube 112 

Pole  Drain 118 

Peat  Tiles  and  Tool 113 

Stone  Drains 115-117 

Draining  Bricks . . .121 

Bound  Pipes 122 

Horse-shoe  Tile 124 

Sole-Tile 125 

Pipes  and  Collar 126 

Flat-bottomed  Pipe-Tile 129 

Drains  across  Slope 150 

training  Irregular  Strata 162 

Belief  Drains 162 

Small  Outlet 178 

Large  Outlet 179,180 

Outlet,  with  Flap .181 

Well,  with  Silt  Basin 186 

Peep-hole  188 

Spring  in  Drained  Field 189 

Main  of  Two  Tiles 194 

Main  of  Several  Tiles 194 

Plan  of  Drained  Field 195 

Junction  of  Drains 196 

Branch  Pipe 19T 

Daines'  Tile  Machine 209 

Pratt's  Tile  Machine..  ..  ...210 


PAGE. 

Tiles,  laid  well  anddll 229 

Square  and  Plumb-Level 229 

Spirit  Level 230 

Staff  and  Target 231 

Span,  or  A  Level 232 

Grading  Trenches  by  Lines 233 

Challoner's  Level 235 

Drain  Spades 235 

Spade  with  Spur. 236 

Common  Shovel  and  Spade 236 

Long-handled  Bound  Shovel 237 

Shovel  Scoop .237 

Irish  Spade 238 

Birmingham  Spades. 240 

Narrow  Spades 242 

English  Bottoming  Tools 243 

Drawing  and  Pushing  Scoops 244 

Pipe-Layer 244 

Pipe-Laying 245 

Pick-axes 245 

Drain  Guage 246 

Elkington's  Auger 246 

Fowler's  Drain  Plow 247 

Pratt's  Ditcher.... 249 

Paul's  Ditcher 250 

Germination 277,  278 

Land  before  Drainage  and  After 286 

Heat  in  Wet  Land 288 

Cracking  of  Claya 325 

Drainage  of  Cellar ,...355 

Drainage  of  Barn  Cellar 359 

Plan  of  Band's  Drainage 872 

"      H.  V.  French's  Drainage 874 


CONTENTS. 


"HAPTER  I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

this  Treatise  does  not  contain  all  Knowledge. — Attention  of  Scientific 
Moil  attracted  to  Drainage. — Lieutenant  Maury's  Suggestions. — Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson's  Views.  —  Opinions  of  J.  H.  Klippart,  Esq. ;  of  Professor 
Mapes ;  B.  P.  Johnson,  Esq.  ;  Governor  Wright,  Mr.  Custis,  &c. — Preju- 
dice against  what  is  English. — Acknowledgements  to  our  Friends  at 
Home  and  Abroad. — The  Wants  of  our  Farmers. 

CHAPTER  II. 

HISTORY   OF   THE   ART   OF   DRAINING. 

Draining  as  old  as  the  Deluge. — Roman  Authors. — Walter  Bligh  in  1 650. — 
No  thorough  drainage  till  Smith,  of  Deanston. — No  mention  of  Tiles  in  the 
"Compleat  Body  of  Husbandry,"  1758.— Tiles  found  100  years  old.— 
Elkington's  System.  —  Johnstone's  Puns  and  Peripatetics.  —  Draining 
Springs. — Bletonisra,  or  the  Faculty  of  Perceiving  Subterranean  Water.— 
Deanston  System. — Views  of  Mr.  Parkes. — Keythorpe  System. — Wharn- 
cliffe  System. — Introduction  of  Tiles  into  America. —  John  Johnston,  and 
Mr.  Delafield,  of  New  York. 

CHAPTER  III. 

RAIN,    EVAPORATION,    AND   FILTRATION. 

Fertilizing  Substances  in  Rain  Water. — Amount  of  Rain  Fall  in  United 
States ;  in  England. — Tables  of  Rain  Fall. — Number  of  Rainy  Days,  and 
Quantity  of  Rain  each  Month.— Snow,  how  Computed  as  Water. — Pro- 
portion of  Rain  Evaporated. — What  Quantity  of  Water  Dry  Soil  will  Hold. 
— Dew  Point. — How  Evaporation  Cools  Bodies. — Artificial  Heat  Under- 
ground.— Tables  of  Filtration  and  Evaporation. 
vii 


Vlll  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEK  IY. 

DRAINAGE  OF   HIGH   LANDS — WHAT  LANDS  REQUIRE  DRAINAGE. 

What  is  High  Land? — Accidents  to  Crops  from  Water. — Do  Lands  need 
Drainage  in  America  ? — Springs. — Theory  of  Moisture,  with  Illustrations. 
— Water  of  Pressure. — Legal  Rights  as  to  Draining  our  Neighbor's  Wells 
and  Land. — What  Lands  require  Drainage  ? — Horace  Greeley's  Opinion. — 
Drainage  more  Necessary  in  America  than  in  England ;  Indications  of  too 
much  Moisture. — Will  Drainage  Pay  ? 

CHAPTER  Y. 

VARIOUS    METHODS    OF    DRAINAGE. 

Open  Ditches. — Slope  of  Banks. — Brush  Drains. — Ridge  and  Furrow. — Plug- 
Draining. — Mole-Draining. — Mole-Plow. — Wedge  and  Shoulder  Drains. — 
Larch  Tubes.— Drains  of  Fence  Rails,  and  Poles.— Peat  Tiles.— Stone 
Drains  Injured  by  Moles. — Downing's  Giraffes. — Illustrations  of  Various 
Kinds  of  Stone  Drains. 

GHAPTEE  YI. 

DRAINAGE   WITH   TILES. 

What  are  Drain-Tiles? — Forms  of  Tiles. — Pipes. — Horse-shoe  Tiles. — Sole- 
Tiles.— Form  of  Water-Passage.— Collars  and  their  Use. — Size  of  Pipes. — 
Velocity.— Friction. — Discharge  of  Water  through  Pipes.— Tables  of 
Capacity. — How  Water  enters  Tiles. — Deep  Drains  run  soonest  and 
longest. — Pressure  of  Water  on  Pipes. — Durability  of  Tile  Drains. — 
Drain-Bricks  100  years  old. 

CHAPTER  YII. 

DIRECTION,    DISTANCE,    AND    DEPTH    OF   DRAINS. 

DIRECTION  OF  DRAINS. — Whence  comes  the  Water  ? — Inclination  of  Strata. — 
Drains  across  the  Slope  let  Water  out  as  well  as  Receive  it. — Defence 
against  Water  from  Higher  Land.— Open  Ditches. — Headers. — Silt-basins. 

DISTANCE  OF  DRAINS. — Depends  on  Soil,  Depth,  Climate,  Prices,  System. — • 
Conclusions  as  to  Distance. 

DEPTH  OF  DRAINS.— Greatly  Increases  Cost.— Shallow  Drains  first  tried  in 
England. — 10,000  Miles  of  Shallow  Drains  laid  in  Scotland  by  way  of  Edu- 
cation.— Drains  must  be  below  Subsoil  plow,  and  Frost. — Effect  of  Frost 
on  Tiles  and  Aqueducts. 


CON1ENTS.  li 

CHAPTER  YIU. 

ARRANGEMENT   OF   DRAINS. 

Necessity  of  Systec;. — What  Fall  is  Necessary. — American  Examples.— Out- 
lets.— Wells  and  Relief-Pipes. — Peep-holes. — How  to  secure  Outlets. — Gate 
to  Exclude  Back- Water. — Gratings  and  Screens  to  keep  out  Frogs,  Snakes, 
Moles,  &c. — Mains,  Submains,  and  Minors,  how  placed. — Capacity  of  Pipes. 
— Mains  of  Two  Tiles. — Junction  of  Drains. — Effect  of  Curves  and  Angles 
on  Currents — Branch  Pipes. — Draining  into  Wells  or  Swallow  Holes. — 
Letter  from  Mr.  Denton. 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE   COST   OF   TILES TILE   MACHINES. 

Prices  far  too  high ;  Albany  prices. — Length  of  Tiles. — Cost  in  Suffolk  Co., 
England. — Waller's  Machine. — Williams'  Machine. — Cost  of  Tiles  compared 
with  Bricks. — Mr.  Denton's  Estimate  of  Cost.— Other  Estimates. — Two- 
inch  Tiles  can  be  Made  as  Cheaply  as  Bricks. — Process  of  Rolling  Tiles. — 
Tile  Machines. — Descriptions  of  Daines'. — Pratt  &  Bro.'s. 

CHAPTER  X. 

THE   COST   OF   DRAINAGE. 

Draining  no  more  expensive  than  Fencing. — Engineering. — Guessing  not 
accurate  enough. — Slight  Fall  sufficient. — Instances. — Two  Inches  to  One- 
Thousand  Feet. — Cost  of  Excavation  and  Filling.— Narrow  Tools  required. 
— Tables  of  Cubic  contents  of  Drains. — Cost  of  Drains  on  our  own  Farm.-— 
Cost  of  Tiles.— Weight  and  Freight  of  Tiles.— Cost  of  Outlets.— Cost  of 
Collars. — Smaller  Tiles  used  with  Collars.— Number  of  Tiles  to  the  Acre, 
with  Tables. — Length  of  Tiles  varies. — Number  of  Rods  to  the  Acre  at 
different  Distances. — Final  Estimate  of  Cost. — Comparative  Cost  of  Tile- 
Drains  ard  Stone-Drains. 

CHAPTER  XL 

DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS. 

Unreasonable  Expectations  about  Draining  Tools. — Levelling  Instruments. — 
Guessing  not  Accurate. — Level  by  a  Square. — Spirit  Level. — Span,  or  A. 
Level.— Grading  by  Lines. — Boning-rod. — Challoner's  Drain  Level. — Spades 
and  Shovels. — Long-handled  Shovel. — Irish  Spade,  description  and  cut. — 
Bottoming  Tools. — Narrow  Spades. — English  Bottoming  Tools, — Pipe- 
layer. — Pipe-laying  Illustrated. — Pickaxes. — Drain  Gauge. — Drain  Plows, 
and  Ditch-Diggers.  —  Fowler's  Drain  Plow.  —  Pratt's  Pitch-Digger. — 
McEwan's  Drain  Plow.— Rout/'s  Drain  Plow. 
1* 


X  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER  XII. 

PRACTICAL     DIRECTIONS     FOE     OPENING     DRAINS     AND    LAYING 

TILES. 

Begin  at  the  Outlet. — Use  of  Plows. — Leveling  the  Bottom. — Where  to 
begin  to  lay  Pipes. — Mode  of  Procedure. — Covering  Pipes. — Securing 
Joints. — Filling.— Securing  Outlets. — Plans. 

CHAPTER  XIH. 

EFFECTS    OF    DRAINAGE   UPON   THE    CONDITION    OF   THE    SOIL. 

Drainage  deepens  the  Soil,  and  gives  the  roots  a  larger  pasture. — Cobbett'a 
Lucerne  30  feet  deep. — Mechi's  Parsnips  13  feet  long! — Drainage  pro- 
motes Pulverization — Prevents  Surface-Washing — Lengthens  the  Season 
— Prevents  Freezing  out — Dispenses  with  Open  Ditches.— Saves  25  per 
cent,  of  Labor — Promotes  absorption  of  Fertilizing  Substances  from  the 
Air. — Supplies  Air  to  the  Roots. — Drains  run  before  Rain ;  so  do  some 
Springs. — Drainage  warms  the  Soil. — Corn  sprouts  at  55°  ;  Rye  on  Ice. — 
Cold  from  Evaporation.  -  Heat  will  not  pass  downward  in  Water. — Count 
Rumford's  Experiments  with  Hot  Water  on  Ice. — Aeration  of  Soil  by 
Drains. 

CHAPTER  XIY. 

DRAINAGE   ADAPTS    THE   SOIL   TO   GERMINATION   AND 
VEGETATION. 

Process  of  Germination. — Two  Classes  of  Pores  in  Soils,  illustrated  by 
cuts. — Too  much  Water  excludes  Air,  reduces  Temperature — How  much 
Air  the  Soil  Contains.  —  Drainage  Improves  the  Quality  of  Crops.  — 
Drainage  prevents  Drought. — Drained  Soils  hold  most  Water — AlloTf 
Roots  to  go  Deep. — Various  Facts. 

CHAPTER  XY. 

TEMPERATURE   AS   AFFECTED   BY   DRAINAGE. 

Drainage  Warms  the  Soil  in  Spring. — Heat  cannot  go  down  in  Wet  Land. — 
Drainage  causes  greater  Deposit  of  Dew  in  Summer. — Dew  warms  Plants 
in  Night,  Cools  them  in  the  Morning  Sun. — Drainage  varies  Temperature 
b-y.  Lessening  Evapocation.— What  is  Evaporation. — How  it  produces  Cold. 
— Drained  Land  Freezes  Deepest,. but  Thaws. Soonest,  and  the  Reasons 


CONTENTS.  XI 

CHAPTER  XYI. 

POWER    OF    SOILS   TO    ABSORB    AND   RETAIN   MOISTURE. 

Why  does  not  Drainage  make  the  Land  too  Dry  ? — Adhesive  Attraction. — • 
The  Finest  Soils  exert  most  Attraction. — How  much  Water  different  Soils 
hold  by  Attraction. — Capillary  Attraction,  illustrated.— Power  to  Imbibe 
Moisture  from  the  Air. — Weight  Absorbed  by  1,000  Ibs.  in  12  Hours. — 
Dew,  Cause  of. — Dew  Point. — Cause  of  Frost. — Why  Covering  Plants 
Protects  from  Frost. — Dew  Imparts  Warmth. — Idea  that  the  Moon  Pro- 
motes Putrefaction. — Quantity  of  Dew. 

CHAPTEE  XYIL 

INJURY   OF   LAND   BY   DRAINAGE. 

Most  Land  cannot  be  Over-drained. — Nature  a  Deep  drainer. — Over-draining 
of  Peaty  Soils.— Lincolnshire  Fens  Visit  to  them  in  1857.— 56  Bushels  of 
Wheat  to  the  Acre. — Wet  Meadows  Subside  by  Drainage. — Conclusions. 

CHAPTER  XYIII. 

OBSTRUCTION     OF    DRAINS. 

Tiles  will  fill  up,  unless  well  laid. — Obstruction  by  Sand  or  Silt. — Obstruc- 
tions at  the  Outlet  from  Frogs,  Moles,  Action  of  Frost,  and  Cattle.— Obstruc- 
tion by  Roots. — Willow,  Ash,  &c.,  trees  capricious. — Roots  enter  Peren- 
nial Streams.— Obstruction  by  Mangold  Wurtzel. — Obstruction  by  Per- 
Oxide  of  Iron. — How  Prevented. — Obstructions  by  the  Joints  Filling. — 
No  Danger  with  Two-Inch  Pipes. — Water  through  the  Pores. — Collars.— 
How  to  Detect  Obstructions. 

CHAPTER  XIX. 

DRAINAGE   OF    STIFF   CLAYS. 

Clay  not  impervious,  or  it  could  not  be  wet  and  dried.' — Puddling,  what  is. 
— Water  will  stand  over  Drains  on  Puddled  Soil. — Cracking  of  Clays  by 
Drying. — Drained  Clays  improve  by  time. — Passage  of  Water  through 
Clay  makes  it  permeable. — Experiment  by  Mr.  Pettibone,  of  Vermont. — • 
Pressure  of  Water  in  Saturated  Soil. 

CHAPTER  XX. 

EFFECTS  OF  DRAINAGE  ON  STREAMS  AND  RIVERS. 
Drainage  Hastens  the  Supply  to  the  Streams,  and  thus  creates  Freshets.— 
Effect  of  Drainage  on  Meadows  below;  on  Water  Privileges.— Conflict 
of  Manufacturing  and  Agricultural  Interests. — English  Opinions  and 
Facts. — Uses  of  Drainage  Water. — Irrigation — Drainage  Water  for  Stock. 
—How  used  by  Mr.  MechL 


Xll  CONTENTS. 

CHAPTEE  XXI. 

LEGISLATION DRAINAGE   COMPANIES. 

England  protects  her  Farmers. — Meadows  ruined  by  Corporation  dams.— 
Old  Mills  often  Nuisances. — Factory  Reservoirs. — Flowage  extends  above 

;     level  of  Dam. — Rye  and  Derwent  Drainage. — Give  Steam  for  Water-Power. 

1  — Right  to  Drain  through  land  of  others. — Right  to  natural  flow  of  Water. 
— Laws  of  Mass. — Right  to  Flow  ;  why  not  to  Drain  ? — Land-drainage 
Companies  in  England. — Lincolnshire  Fens. — Government  Loans  for 
Drainage. 

CHAPTEE  XXII. 

DRAINAGE     OF     CELLARS. 

Wet  Cellars  TJnhealthful.  —  Importance  of  Cellars  in  New  England. — A 
Glance  at  the  Garret,  by  way  of  Contrast. — Necessity  of  Drains. — Sketch 
of  an  Inundated  Cellar.  —  Tiles  best  for  Drains.  —  Best  Plan  of  Cellar 
Drain;  Illustration. — Cementing  will  not  do.— Drainage  of  Barn  Cellars. — 
Uses  of  them. — Actual  Drainage  of  a  very  Bad  Cellar  described. — Drains 
Outside  and  Inside  ;  Illustration. 

CHAPTEE  XXIII. 

DRAINAGE     OF     SWAMPS. 

Vast  Extent  of  Swamp  Lands  in  the  United  States. — Their  Soil. — Sources  of 
their  Moisture. — How  to  Drain  them. — The  Soil  Subsides  by  Draining. — 
Catch-water  Drains. — Springs. — Mr.  Ruffin's  Drainage  in  Virginia. — Is 
there  Danger  of  Over-draining  ? 

CHAPTEE    XXIY. 

AMERICAN   EXPERIMENTS   IN   DRAINAGE DR*AINAGE   IN 

IRELAND. 

Statement  of  B.  F.  Nourse,  of  Maine. — Statement  of  Shedd  and  Edson,  of  Mass. 
— Statement  of  H.  F.  French,  of  New  Hampshire. — Letter  of  Wm.  Boyle, 
Albert  Model  Farm,  Glasnevin,  Ireland. 

INDEX. 


FARM    DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER    I. 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Why  this  Treatise  does  not  contain  all  Knowledge. — Attention  of  Scientific 
Men  attracted  to  Drainage. — Lieutenant  Maury's  Suggestions. — Ralph 
Waldo  Emerson's  Views. — Opinions  of  J.  H.  Klippart,  Esq. ;  of  Professor 
Mapes  ;  B.  P.  Johnston,  Esq. ;  Governor  Wright,  Mr.  Custis,  &c. — Preju- 
dice against  what  is  English. —  Acknowledgements  to  our  Friends  at 
Home  and  Abroad. — The  Wants  of  our  Farmers. 

A  Book  upon  Farm  Drainage !  What  can  a  person 
find  on  such  a  subject  to  write  a  book  about?  A  friend 
suggests,  that  in  order  to  treat  any  one  subject  fully,  it  is 
necessary  to  know  everything  and  speak  of  everything, 
because  all  knowledge  is  in  some  measure  connected. 

"With  an  earnest  endeavor  to  clip  the  wings  of  imagin- 
ation, and  to  keep  not  only  on  the  earth,  but  to  burrow, 
like  a  mole  or  a  sub-soiler,  in  it,  with  a  painful  apprehen- 
sion lest  some  technical  term  in  Chemistry  or  Philosophy 
should  falsely  indicate  that  we  make  pretensions  to  the 
character  of  a  scientific  farmer,  or  some  old  phrase  o: 
law-Latin  should  betray  that  we  know  something  besides 
agriculture,  and  so,  are  not  worthy  of  the  confidence  of 
practical  men,  we  have,  nevertheless,  by  some  means, 
got  together  more  than  a  bookfull  of  matter  upon  our 
subject. 

13 


14:  FABH   DRAINAGE. 

Our  publisher  says  our  book  must  be  so  large,  and  no 
larger — and  we  all  know  that  an  author  is  but  as  a  grass- 
hopper in  the  hands  of  his  publisher,  and  ought  to  be 
very  thankful  to  be  allowed  .to  publish  his  book  at  all. 
So  we  have  only  to  say,  that  if  there  is  any  chapter  in 
this  book  not  sufficiently  elaborate,  or  any  subject  akin  to 
that  of  drainage,  that  ought  to  have  been  embraced  in 
our  plan  and  is  not,  it  is  because  we  have  not  space  for 
further  expansion.  The  reader  has  our  heartfelt  sympathy, 
if  it  should  happen  that  the  very  topic  which  most  in- 
terests him,  is  entirely  omitted,  or  imperfectly  treated; 
and  we  can  only  advise  him  to  write  a  book  himself,  by 
way  of  showing  proper  resentment,  and  put  into  it  every- 
thing that  everybody  desires  most  to  know. 

A  book  that  shall  contain  all  that  wre  do  not  know  on 
the  subject  of  drainage,  would  be  a  valuable  acquisition 
to  agricultural  literature,  and  we  bespeak  an  early  copy 
of  it  when  published. 

IRRIGATION  is  a  subject  closely  connected  with  drainage, 
and,  although  it  would  require  a  volume  of  equal  size  with 
this  to  lay  it  properly  before  the  American  public,  who 
know  so  little  of  water-meadows  and  liquid-manuring,  and 
even  of  the  artificial  application  of  water  to  land  in  any 
way,  we  feel  called  upon  for  an  apology  for  its  omission. 

Lieutenant  Maury,  whose  name  does  honor  to  his  nation 
over  all  the  civilized  world,  and  on  whom  the  blessings 
of  every  navigator  upon  the  great  waters,  are  constantly 
showered,  in  a  letter  which  we  had  the  honor  recently  to 
receive  from  him,  thus  speaks  of  this  subject : 

"  I  was  writing  to  a  friend  some  months  ago  upon  the 
subject  of  drainage  in  this  country,  and  I  am  pleased  to  infer 
from  your  letter,  that  our  opinions  are  somewhat  similar. 
The  climate  of  England  is  much  more  moist  than  this, 
though  the  amount  of  rain  in  many  parts  of  this  country, 
is  much  greater  than  the  amount  of  rain  there.  It  drizzles 


INTKODUCTOE1 .  1 5 

there  more  than  it  does  here.  Owing  to  the  high  dew 
point  in  England,  but  a  small  portion  only — that  is,  com- 
paratively small — of  the  rain  that  falls  can  be  evaporated 
again  ;  consequently,  it  remains  in  the  soil  until  it  is 
drained  off.  Here,  on  the  other  hand,  the  clouds  pour  it 
down,  and  the  sun  sucks  it  up  right  away,  so  that  the 
perfection  of  drainage  for  this  country  would  be  the  very 
reverse,  almost,  of  the  drainage  in  England.  If,  instead 
of  leading  the  water  off  into  the  water-veins  and  streams 
of  the  country,  as  is  there  done,  we  could  collect  it  in 
pools  on  the  farm,  so  as  to  be  used  in  time  of  drought  for 
irrigation,  then  your  system  of  drainage  would  be  worth 
untold  wealth.  Of  course,  in  low  grounds,  and  all  places 
where  the  atmosphere  does  not  afford  sufficient  drainage 
by  evaporation,  the  English  plan  will  do  very  well,  and 
much  good  may  be  done  by  a  treatise  which  shall  enable 
owners  to  reclaim  or  improve  such  places." 

Indeed,  the  importance  of  this  subject  of  drainage, 
seems  all  at  once  to  have  found  universal  acknowledge- 
ment throughout  our  country,  not  only  from  agriculturists, 
but  from  philosophers  and  men  of  general  science. 

Emerson,  whose  eagle  glance,  piercing  beyond  the  sight 
of  other  men,  recognizes  in  so-called  accidental  heroes  the 
"  Representative  men"  of  the  ages,  and  in  what  to  others 
Beem  but  caprices  and  conventionalisms,  the  "  Traits"  of 
a  nation,  yet  never  overlooks  the  practical  and  every-day 
wants  of  man,  in  a  recent  address  at  Concord,  Mass.,  the 
place  of  his  residence,  thus  characteristically  alludes  to 
our  subject : 

"  Concord  is  one  of  the  oldest  towns  in  the  country — • 
far  on  now  in  its  third  century.  The  Select-men  have 
once  in  five  years  perambulated  its  bounds,  and  yet,  in 
this  year,  a  very  large  quantity  of  land  'has  been  dis- 
covered and  added  to  the  agricultural  land,  and  without 
a  murmur  of  complaint  from  any  neighbor.  By  drainage, 


16  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

we  have  gone  to  the  subsoil,  and  we  have  a  Concord  under 
Concord,  a  Middlesex  under  Middlesex,  and  a  basement- 
story  of  Massachusetts  more  valuable  than  all  the  super- 
structure. Tiles  are  political  economists.  They  are  so 
many  Young- Americans  announcing  a  better  era,  and  a 
day  of  fat  things." 

John  H.  Klippart,  Esq.,  the  learned  Secretary  of  the 
Ohio  Board  of  Agriculture,  expresses  his  opinion  upon 
the  importance  of  our  subject  in  his  own  State,  in  this 
emphatic  language  : 

"  The  agriculture  of  Ohio  can  make  no  farther  marked 
progress  until  a  good  system  of  under-drainage  has  been 
adopted." 

A  writer  in  the  Country  Gentleman,  from  Ashtabula 
County,  Ohio,  says : — "  One  of  two  things  must  be  done 
by  us  here.  Clay  predominates  in  our  soil,  and  we  must 
under-drain  our  land,  or  sell  and  move  west." 

Professor  Mapes,  of  New  York,  under  date  of  January 
17,  1859,  says  of  under-draining : 

"  I  do  not  believe  that  farming  can  be  pursued  with 
full  profit  without  it.  It  would  seem  to  be  no  longer  a 
question.  The  experience  of  England,  in  the  absence  of 
all  other  proof,  would  be  sufficient  to  show  that  capital 
may  be  invested  more  safely  in  under-draining,  than  in 
any  other  way  ;  for,  after  the  expenditure  of  many  millions 
by  English  farmers  in  this  way,  it  has  been  clearly  proved 
that  their  increased  profit,  arising  from  this  cause  alone, 
is  sufficient  to  pay  the  total  expense  in  full,  with  interest, 
within  twenty  years,  thus  leaving  their  farms  increased 
permanently  to  the  amount  of  the  total  cost,  while  the 
income  is  augmented  in  a  still  greater  ratio.  It  is  quite 
doubtful  whether  England  could  at  this  time  sustain  her 
increased  population,  if  it  were  not  for  her  system  of 
thorough-drainage.  In  my  own  practice,  the  result  has 
been  such  as  to  convince  me  of  its  advantages,  and  I 


INTRODUCTORY.  17 

should  be  unwilling  to  enter  into  any  new  cultivation 
without  thorough  drainage." 

E.  P.  Johnson,  Secretary  of  the  New  York  Board  of 
Agriculture,  in  answer  to  some  inquiries  upon  the  subject 
of  drainage  with  tiles,  writes  us,  under  date  of  December, 
1858,  as  follows : 

"I  have  given  much  time  and  attention  to  the  subject 
of  drainage,  having  deemed  it  all-important  to  the  im- 
provement of  the  farms  of  our  State.  I  am  well  satisfied, 
from  a  careful  examination  in  England,  as  well  as  from 
my  observation  in  this  country,  that  tiles  are  far  pre- 
ferable to  any  other  material  that  I  know  of  for  drains, 
and  this  is  the  opinion  of  all  those  who  have  engaged 
extensively  in  the  work  in  this  State,  so  far  as  I  have 
information.  It  is  gratifying  to  be  assured,  that  during 
the  year  past,  there  has  been  probably  more  land-draining 
than  during  any  previous  year,  showing  the  deep  interest 
which  is  taken  in  this  all-important  work,  so  indispensable 
to  the  success  of  the  farmer." 

It  is  ascertained,  by  inquiry  at  the  Land  Office,  that 
more  than  52,000,000  acres  of  swamp  and  overflowed 
lands  have  been  selected  under  the  Acts  of  March  2d, 
1849,  and  September  28th,  1850,  from  the  dates  of  those 
grants  to  September,  1856  ;  and  it  is  estimated  that,  when 
the  grants  shall  have  been  entirely  adjusted,  they  will 
amount  to  60,000,000  acres. 

Grants  of  these  lands  have  been  made  by  Congress, 
from  the  public  domain,  gratuitously,  to  the  States  in 
which  they  lie,  upon  the  idea  that  they  were  not  only 
worthless  to  the  Government,  but  dangerous  to  the  health 
of  the  neighboring  inhabitants,  with  the  hope  that  the 
State  governments  might  take  measures  to  reclaim  them 
for  cultivation,  or,  at  least,  render  them  harmless,  by  the 
Removal  of  their  surplus  water. 

Governor  Wright,   of  Indiana,   in   a  public    address, 


18  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

estimated  the  marshy  lands  of  that  State  at  3,000,000 
acres.  "  These  lands,"  he  says,  "were  generally  avoided 
by  early  settlers,  as  being  comparatively  worthless  ;  but, 
when  drained,  they  become  eminently  fertile."  He  further 
says :  "  I  know  a  farm  of  160  acres,  which  was  sold  five 
years  ago  for  $500,  that  by  an  expenditure  of  less  than 
$200,  in  draining  and  ditching,  has  been  so  improved, 
that  the  owner  has  refused  for  it  an  offer  of  $3,000." 

At  the  meeting  of  the  United  States  Agricultural 
Society,  at  Washington,  in  January,  1857,  Mr.  G.  W.  P. 
Custis  spoke  in  connection  with  the  great  importance  of 
this  subject,  of  the  vast  quantity  of  soil — the  richest  con- 
ceivable— now  lying  waste,  to  the  extent  of  100,000  acres, 
along  the  banks  of  the  Lower  Potomac,  and  which  he 
denominates  by  the  old  Virginia  title  of  pocoson.  The 
fertility  of  this  reclaimable  swamp  he  reports  to  be 
astonishing;  and  he  has  corroborated  the  opinion  by 
experiments  which  confounded  every  beholder.  "  These 
lands  on  our  time-honored  river,"  he  says,  "  if  brought 
into  use,  would  supply  provisions  at  half  the  present  cost, 
and  would  in  other  respects  prove  of  the  greatest  ad- 
vantage." 

The  drainage  of  highways  arid  walks,  was  noted  as  a 
topic  kindred  to  our  subject,  although  belonging  more 
properly  perhaps,  to  the  drainage  of  towns  and  to  land- 
scape-gardening, than  to  farm  drainage.  This,  too,  was 
found  to  be  beyond  the  scope  of  our  proposed  treatise, 
and  has  been  left  to  some  abler  hand. 

So,  too,  the  whole  subject  of  reclaiming  lands  from  the 
sea,  and  from  rivers,  by  embankment,  and  the  drainage 
of  lakes  and  ponds,  which  at  a  future  day  must  attract 
great  attention  in  this  country,  has  proved  quite  too  exten- 
sive to  be  treated  here.  The  day  will  soon  come,  when 
on  our  Atlantic  coast,  the  ocean  waves  will  be  stayed, 
and  all  along  our  great  rivers,  the  Spring  floods,  and  the 


INTRODUCTORY.  1 9 

Summer  freshets,  will  be  held  within  artificial  barriers, 
and  the  enclosed  lands  be  kept  dry  by  engines  propelled 
by  steam,  or  some  more  efficient  or  economical  agent. 

The  half  million  acres  of  fen-land  in  Lincolnshire,  pro- 
ducing the  heaviest  wheat  crops  in  England  ;  and  Harlaem 
Lake,  in  Holland,  with  its  40,000  acres  of  fertile  land,  far 
below  the  tides,  and  once  covered  with  many  feet  of 
water,  are  examples  of  what  science  and  well-directed 
labor  may  accomplish.  But  this  department  of  drainage 
demands  the  skill  of  scientific  engineers,  and  the  employ- 
ment of  combined  capital  and  effort,  beyond  the  means  of 
American  farmers ;  and  had  we  ability  to  treat  it  pro- 
perly, would  afford  matter  rather  of  pleasing  speculation, 
than  of  practical  utility  to  agricultural  readers. 

With  a  reckless  expenditure  of  paper  and  ink,  we  had 
already  prepared  chapters  upon  several  topics,  which, 
though  not  essential  to  farm-drainage,  were  as  near  to  our 
subject  as  the  minister  usually  is  limited  in  preaching,  or 
the  lawyer  in  argument ;  but  conformity  to  the  Procrus- 
tean bed,  in  whose  sheets  we  had  in  advance  stipulated 
to  sleep,  cost  us  the  amputation  of  a  few  of  our  least  im- 
portant heads. 

"  Don't  be  too  English,"  suggests  a  very  wise  and  politic 
friend.  We  are  fully  aware  of  the  prejudice  which  still 
exists  in  many  minds  in  our  country,  against  what  is 
peculiarly  English.  Because,  forsooth,  our  good  Mother 
England,  towards  a  century  ago,  like  most  fond  mothers, 
thought  her  transatlantic  daughter  quite  too  young  and 
inexperienced  to  set  up  an  establishment  and  manage  it 
for  herself,  and  drove  her  into  wasteful  experiments  of 
wholesale  tea-making  in  Boston  harbor,  by  way  of  illus- 
trating her  capacity  of  entertaining  company  from  beyond 
seas ;  and  because,  near  half  a  century  ago,  we  had  some 
sharp  words,  spoken  not  through  the  mouths  of  prophets 
and  sages,  but  through  the  mouths  of  great  guns,  touching 


20  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

the  right  of  cur  venerated  parent  to  examine  the  internal 
economy  of  our  merchant-ships  on  the  sea — because  of 
reminiscences  like  these,  we  are  to  forswear  all  that  is 
English !  And  so  we  may  claim  no  kindred  in  literature 
with  Shakspeare  and  Milton,  in  jurisprudence,  with  Bacon 
and  Mansfield,  in  statesmanship,  with  Pitt  and  Fox  ! 

"Whence  came  the  spirit  of  independence,  the  fearless 
love  of  liberty  of  which  we  boast,  but  from  our  English 
blood?  Whence  came  our  love  of  territorial  extension, 
our  national  ambition,  exhibited  under  the  affectionate 
name  of  annexation?  Does  not  this  velvet  paw  writh 
which  we  softly  play  with  our  neighbors'  heads,  conceal 
some  long,  crooked  talons,  which  tell  of  the  ancestral 
blood  of  the  British  Lion  ? 

The  legislature  of  a  New  England  State,  not  many 
years  ago,  appointed  a  committee  to  revise  its  statutes. 
This  committee  had  a  pious  horror  of  all  dead  languages, 
and  a  patriotic  fear  of  paying  too  high  a  compliment  to 
England,  and  so  reported  that  all  proceedings  in  courts  of 
""aw  should  be  in  the  American  language!  An  inquiry 
by  a  waggish  member,  whether  the  committee  intended 
to  allow  proceedings  to  be  in  any  one  of  the  three  hundred 
Indian  dialects,  restored  to  the  English  language  its 
appropriate  name. 

Though  from  some  of  our  national  traits,  we  might 
possibly  be  supposed  to  have  sprung  from  the  sowing  of 
the  dragon's  teeth  by  Cadmus,  yet  the  uniform  record  of 
all  American  families  which  goes  back  to  the  "  three 
brothers  who  came  over  from  England,"  contradicts  this 
theory,  and  connects  us  by  blood  and  lineage  with  that 
country. 

Indeed,  we  can  hardly  consent  to  sell  our  birthright  for 
BO  poor  a  mess  of  pottage  as  this  petty  jealousy  offers. 
A  teachable  spirit  in  matters  of  which  we  are  ignorant, 
is  usually  as  profitable  and  respectable  as  abundant  self- 


INTKODUCTOKY.  21 

conceit,  and  rendering  to  Caesar  the  things  that  are  Csesar's, 
quite  as  honest  as  to  pocket  the  coin  as  our  own,  notwith- 
standing the  "  image  and  superscription." 

"We  make  frequent  reference  to  English  writers  and 
to  English  opinions  upon  our  subject,  because  drainage  is 
understood  and  practiced  better  in  England  than  any- 
where else  in  the  world,  and  because  by  personal  inspec- 
tion of  drainage-works  there,  and  personal  acquaintance 
and  correspondence  with  some  of  the  most  successful 
drainers  in  that  country,  we  feel  some  confidence  of  ability 
to  apply  English  principles  to  American  soil  and  climate. 

To  J.  Bailey  Denton,  Engineer  of  the  General  Land 
Drainage  Company,  and  one.  of  the  most  distinguished 
practical  and  scientific  drainers  in  England,  we  wish 
publicly  to  acknowledge  our  obligations  for  personal 
favors  shown  us  in  the  preparation  of  our  work. 

We  claim  no  great  praise  of  originality  in  what  is  here 
offered  to  the  public.  Wherever  we  have  found  a  person 
of  whom  we  could  learn  anything,  in  this  or  other  coun- 
tries, we  have  endeavored  to  profit  by  his  teachings,  and 
whenever  the  language  of  another,  in  book  or  journal,  has 
been  found  to  express  forcibly  an  idea  which  we  deemed 
worthy  of  adoption,  we  have  given  full  credit  for  both 
thought  and  words. 

Our  friends,  Messrs.  Shedd  and  Edson,  of  Boston,  whose 
experience  as  draining  engineers. entitles  them  to  a  high 
rank  among  American  authorities,  have  been  in  constant 
communication  with  us,  throughout  our  labors.  The 
chapter  upon  Evaporation,  Rain  fall,  &c.,  which  we  deem 
of  great  value  as  a  contribution  to  science  in  general,  will 
be  seen  to  be  in  part  credited  to  them,  as  are  also  the 
tables  showing  the  discharge  of  water  through  pipes  of 
various  capacity. 

Drainage  is  a  new  subject  in  America,  not  well  under- 


22  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

stood,  and  we  .have  no  man,  it  is  believed,  peculiarly  fitted 
to  teach  its  theory  and  practice ;  yet  the  farmers  every- 
where are  awake  to  its  importance,  and  are  eagerly 
seeking  for  information  on  the  subject.  Many  are  already 
engaged  in  the  endeavor  to  drain  their  lands,  conscious  of 
their  want  of  the  requisite  knowledge  to  effect  their  object 
in  a  profitable  manner,  while  others  are  going  resolutely 
forward,  in  violation  of  all  correct  principles,  wasting 
their  labor,  unconscious  even  of  their  ignorance. 

In  New  England,  we  have  determined  to  dry  the  springy 
hill  sides,  and  so  lengthen  our  seasons  for  labor  ;  we  have 
found,  too,  in  the  valleys  and  swamps,  the  soil  which  has 
been  washed  from  our  mountains,  and  intend  to  avail  our- 
selves of  its  fertility  in  the  best  manner  practicable.  On 
the  prairies  of  the  great  West,  large  tracts  are  found  just 
a  little  too  wet  for  the  best  crops  of  corn  and  wheat,  and 
the  inquiry  is  anxiously  made,  how  can  we  be  rid  of  this 
surplus  water. 

There  is  no  treatise,  English  or  American,  which  meets 
the  wants  of  our  people.  In  England,  it  is  true,  land 
drainage  is  already  reduced  to  a  science ;  but  their  system 
has  grown  up  by  degrees,  the  first  principles  being  now 
too  familiar  to  be  at  all  discussed,  and  the  points  now  in 
controversy  there,  quite  beyond  the  comprehension  of  be- 
ginners. America  wants  a  treatise  which  shall  be  ele- 
mentary, as  well  as  thorough — that  shall  teach  the 
alphabet,  as  well  as  the  transcendentalism,  of  draining 
land — that  shall  tell  the  man  who  never  saw  a  drain-tile 
what  thorough  drainage  is,  and  shall  also  suggest  to  those 
who  have  studied  the  subject  in  English  books  only,  the 
differences  in  climate  and  soil,  in  the  prices  of  labor  and 
of  products,  which  must  modify  our  operations. 

With  some  practical  experience  on  his  own  land,  witli 
careful  observation  in  Europe  and  in  America  of  the 
details  of  drainage  operations,  with  a  somewhat  critical 


INTRODUCTORY.  23 

examination  of  published  books  and  papers  on  all  topics 
connected  with  the  general  subject,  the  author  has  endea- 
vored to  turn  the  leisure  hours  of  a  laborious  professional 
life  to  gome  account  for  the  farmer.  Although,  as  the 
lawyers  say,  the  "presumptions"  are,  perhaps,  strongly 
against  the  idea,  yet  a  professional  man  may  understand 
practical  farming.  The  profession  of  the  law  has  made 
some  valuable  contributions  to  agricultural  literature. 
Sir  Anthony  Fitzherbert,  author  of  the  "Boke  of  Husban- 
drie,"  published  in  1523,  was  Chief  Justice  of  the  Com- 
mon Pleas,  and,  as  he  says,  an  "  experyenced  farmer  of 
more  than  40  years."  The  author  of  that  charming  little 
book,  "  Talpa,"  it  is  said,  is  also  a  lawyer,  and  there  is  such 
wisdom  in  the  idea,  so  well  expressed  by  Emerson  as  a 
fact,  that  we  commend  it  by  way  of  consolation  to  men 
of  all  the  learned  professions :  "  All  of  us  keep  the  farm  in 
reserve,  as  an  asylum  where  to  hide  our  poverty  and  our 
solitude,  if  we  do  not  succeed  in  society." 

Besides  the  prejudice  against  what  is  foreign,  we  meet 
everywhere  the  prejudice  against  what  is  new,  though  far 
less  in  this  country  than  in  England.  "  E"o  longer  ago 
than  1835,"  says  the  Quarterly  Review,  "  Sir  Robert  Peel 
presented  a  Farmers'  Club,  at  Tamworth,  with  two  iron 
plows  of  the  best  construction.  On  his  next  visit,  the  old 
plows,  with  the  wooden  mould-boards,  were  again  at 
work.  '  Sir,'  said  a  member  of  the  club,  '  we  tried  the 
iron,  and  we  be  all  of  one  mind,  that  they  make  the  weeds 
grow  !'  " 

American  farmers  have  no  such  ignorant  prejudice  as 
this.  They  err  rather  by  having  too  much  faith  in  them- 
selves, than  by  having  too  little  in  the  idea  of  progress, 
and  will  be  more  likely  to  "  go  ahead  "  in  the  wrong  direc- 
tion, than  to  remain  quiet  in  their  old  position. 


24  FARM  DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER  H. 

HISTORY   OF  THE   ART   OF   DRAINING. 

Draining  as  Old  as  the  Deluge. — Roman  Authors. — Walter  Bligh  in  1650. — 
No  thorough  drainage  till  Smith  of  Deaaston. — No  mention  of  tiles  in  the 
"  Compleat  Body  of  Husbandry,"  1758. — Tiles  found  100  years  old. — 
Elkington's  System. — Johnstone's  Puns  and  Peripatetics.  —  Draining 
Springs. — Bletonism,  or  the  Faculty  of  Perceiving  Subterranean  Water. — 
Deanston  System. — Views  of  Mr.  Parkes. — Keythorpe  System. — Wharn- 
cliffe  System. — Introduction  of  tiles  into  America. — John  Johnston,  and 
Mr.  Delafield,  of  New  York. 

THE  art  of  removing  superfluous  water  from  land,  must 
be  as  ancient  as  the  art  of  cultivation ;  and  from  the  time 
when  Noah  and  his  family  anxiously  watched  the  sub- 
siding of  the  waters  into  their  appropriate  channels,  to 
the  present,  men  must  have  felt  the  ill  effects  of  too  much 
water,  and  adopted  means  more  or  less  effective,  to  re- 
move it. 

The  Roman  writers  upon  agriculture,  Cato,  Columella, 
and  Pliny,  all  mention  draining,  and  some  of  them  give 
minute  directions  for  forming  drains  with  stories,  branches 
of  trees,  and  straw.  Palladius,  in  his  De  Aquw  Ductibus, 
mentions  earthen-ware  tubes,  used  however  for  aque- 
ducts, rather  for  conveying  water  from  place  to  place, 
than  for  draining  lands  for  agriculture. 

Nothing,  however,  like  the  systematic  drainage  of  the 
present  day,  seems  to  have  been  conceived  of  in  England, 
until  about  1650,  when  Captain  Walter  Bligh  published 
a  work,  which  is  interesting,  as  embodying  and  boldly 


HISTORY   OF  .DRAINING.  25 

advocating  the  theory  of  deep-drainage  as  applied  by 
him  to  water-meadows  and  swamps,  and  as  applicable  to 
the  drainage  of  all  other  moist  lands. 

We  give  from  the  7th  volume  of  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society,  in  the  language  of  that 
eminent  advocate  of  deep-drainage,  Josiah  Parkes,  an 
account  of  this  rare  book,  and  of  the  principles  which  it 
advocates,  as  a  fitting  introduction  to  the  more  modern 
and  more  perfect  system  of  thorough  drainage  : 

"  The  author  of  this  work  was  a  Captain  Walter  Bligh,  signing 
himself,  l  A  Lover  of  Ingenuity.'  It  is  quaintly  entitled,  l  The  English 
Improver  Improved  :  or,  the  Survey  of  Husbandry  Surveyed ;'  with 
several  prefaces,  but  specially  addressed  to  '  The  Right  Honorable  the 
Lord  General  Cromwell,  and  the  Right  Honorable  the  Lord  President, 
and  the  rest  of  the  Honorable  Society  of  the  Council  of  State.'  In  his 
instructions  for  forming  the  flooding  and  draining  trenches  of  water- 
meadows,  the  author  says  of  the  latter: — 'And  for  thy  drayning- 
trench,  it  must  be  made  so  deep,  that  it  goe  to  the  bottom  of  the  cold 
spe\ving  moyst  water,  that  feeds  the  flagg  and  the  rush;  for  the  wide- 
nesse  of  it,  use  thine  own  liberty,  but  be  sure  to  make  it  so  wide  as 
thou  mayest  goe  to  the  bottom  of  it,  which  must  be  so  low  as  any 
moysture  lyeth,  which  moysture  usually  lyeth  under  the  over  and 
second  swarth  of  the  earth,  in  some  gravel  or  sand,  or  else,  where 
some  greater  stones  are  mixt  with  clay,  under  which  thou  must  goe 
half  one  spade's  graft  deep  at  least.  Yea,  suppose  this  corruption  that 
feeds  and  nourish eth  the  rush  or  flagg,  should  lie  a  yard  or  four-foot 
deepe ;  to  the  bottom  of  it  thou  must  goe,  if  ever  thou  wilt  drayn  it  to 
purpose,  or  make  the  utmost  advantage  of  either  floating  or  drayning, 
without  which  the  water  cannot  have  its  kindly  operation ;  for  though 
the  water  fatten  naturally,  yet  still  this  coldnesse,  and  moysture  lies 
gnawing  within,  and  not  being  taken  clean  away,  it  eates  out  what  the 
water  fattens  ;  and  so  the  goodneese  of  the  water  is,  as  it  were,  riddled, 
screened,  and  strained  out  into  the  land,  leaving  the  richriesse  and  the 
leancsse  sliding  away  from  it.'  In  another  place,  he  replies  to  the 
objectors  of  floating,  that  it  will  breed  the  rush,  the  flagg,  and  mare- 
blab  :  c  only  make  thy  drayning-trenches  deep  enough,  and  not  too  far 
off  thy  floating  course,  and  I'le  warrant  it  they  drayn  away  that  under- 
moysture,  fylth,  and  venom  as  aforesaid,  that  maintains  them;  and 
then  believe  me.  or  deny  Scripture,  which  I  hope  thou  doust  not,  as 


26  FARM    DKAINAGE. 

-Bildad  said  unto  Job,  "  Can  the  rush  grow  without  mire,  or  the  flagg 
without  water  ?"  Job  viii.  12.  That  interrogation  plainly  showes  that 
the  rush  cannot  grow,  the  water  being  taken  from  the  root ;  for  it  is 
not  the  moystnesse  upon  the  surface  of  the  land,  for  then  every  shower 
should  increase  the  rush,  but  it  is  that  which  lieth  at  the  root,  which, 
drayned  away  at  the  bottom,  leaves  it  naked  and  barren  of  relief.' 

"  The  author  frequently  returns  to  this  charge,  explaining  over  and 
over  again  the  necessity  of  removing  what  we  call  bottom-water,  and 
which  he  well  designates  as  *  filth  and  venom.' 

c;  In  the  course  of  my  operations  as  a  drainer,  I  have  met  with,  or 
heard  of,  so  many  instances  of  swamp-drainage,  executed  precisely 
according  to  the  plans  of  this  author,  and  sometimes  in  a  superior 
manner — the  conduits  being  formed  of  walling  stone,  at  a  period 
long  antecedent  to  the  memory  of  the  living — that  I  am  disposed  to 
consider  the  practice  of  deep  drainage  to  have  originated  with  Captain 
Bligh,  and  to  have  been  preserved  by  imitators  in  various  parts  of  the 
country;  since  a  book,  which  passed  through  three  editions  in  the  time 
of  the  Commonwealth,  must  necessarily  have  had  an  extensive  circu- 
lation, and  enjoyed  a  high  renown.  Several  complimentary  autograph 
verses,  written  by  some  imitators  and  admirers  of  the  ingenious  Bligh, 
are  bound  up  with  the  volume.  I  find  also,  not  unfrequently,  very 
ancient  deep  drains  in  arable  fields,  and  some  of  them  still  in  good  con- 
dition ;  and  in  a  case  or  two,  I  have  met  with  several  ancient  drains 
six  feet  deep,  placed  parallel  with  each  other,  but  at  so  great  a  distance 
asunder,  as  not  to  have  commanded  a  perfect  drainage  of  the  inter- 
mediate space.  The  author  from  whom  I  have  so  largely  quoted,  is 
the  earliest  known  to  me,  who  has  had  the  sagacity  to  distinguish 
between  the  transient  effect  of  rain,  and  the  constant  action  of  stag- 
nant bottom-water  in  maintaining  land  in  a  wet  condition." 

Dr.  Shier,  editor  of  "  Davy's  Agricultural  Chemistry," 
says,  "  The  history  of  drainage  in  Britain  may  be  briefly 
told.  Till  the  time  of  Smith,  of  Deanston,  draining  was 
generally  regarded  as  the  means  of  freeing  the  land  from 
springs,  oozes,  and  under-water,  and  it  was  applied  only 
to  lands  palpably  wet,  and  producing  rushes  and  other 
aquatic  plants." 

He  then  proceeds  to  give  the  principles  of  Elkington, 
Smith,  Parkes,  and  other  modern  writers,  of  which  wo 
shall  speak  more  at  large. 


HISTORY    OF   DRAINING.  2? 

The  work  published  in  England,  not  far  from  Captain 
Bligh's  time,  under  the  title  "  A  Complete  Body  of  Hus- 
bandry," undertakes  to  give  directions  for  all  sorts  of  farm- 
ing processes.  A  Second  Edition,  in  four  octavo  volumes, 
of  which  we  have  a  copy,  was  published  in  1758.  It  pro- 
fesses to  treat  of  "  Draining  in  General,"  and  then  of  the 
draining  of  boggy  land  and  of  fens,  but  gives  no  intima- 
tion that  any  other  lands  require  drainage. 

Directions  are  given  for  filling  drains  with  "  rough 
stones,"  to  be  covered  with  refuse  wood,  and  over  that, 
some  of  the  earth  that  was  thrown  out  in  digging.  "  By 
this  means,"  says  the  writer,  "  a  passage  will  be  left  free 
for  all  the  water  the  springs  yield,  and  there  will  be  none 
of  these  great  openings  upon  the  surface." 

He  thus  describes  a  method  practiced  in  Oxfordshire  of 
draining  with  bushes  : 

'•  Let  the  trenches  be  cut  deeper  than  otherwise,  suppose  three  foot 
deep,  and  two  foot  over.  As  soon  as  they  are  made,  let  the  bottoms  of 
them  be  covered  with  fresh-cut  blackthorn  bushes.  Upon  these,  throw 
in  a  quantity  of  large  refuse  stones  :  over  these  let  there  be  another 
covering  of  straw,  and  upon  this,  some  of  the  earth,  so  as  to  make  the 
surface  level  with  the  rest.  These  trenches  will  always  keep  open." 

No  mention  whatever  is  made  in  this  elaborate  treatise 
of  tiles  of  any  kind,  which  affords  very  strong  evidence 
that  they  were  not  in  use  for  drainage  at  that  time.  In  a 
note,  however,  to  Stephen's  "  Draining  and  Irrigation,"  we 
find  the  following  statement  and  opinion  : 

11  In  draining  the  park  at  Grimsthorpe,  Lincolnshire,  about  three 
years  ago,  some  drains,  made  with  tiles,  were  found  eight  feet  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  tiles  were  similar  to  what  are  now  used, 
and  in  as  good  a  state  of  preservation  as  when  first  laid,  although  they 
must  havj  remained  there  above  one  hundred  years." 

ELKINGTON'S  SYSTEM  OF  DRAINAGE. 

It  appears,  that,  in  1795,  the  British  Parliament,  at  the 
request  of  the  BoarcJ  of  Agriculture,  voted  to.  Joseph 


28  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

Elkington  a  reward  of  £1000,  for  his  valuable  discoveries 
in  the  drainage  of.  land.  Joseph  Elkington  was  a  War- 
wickshire farmer,  and  Mr.  Gisborne  says  he  was  a  man  of 
considerable  genius,  but  he  had  the  misfortune  to  be  illit- 
erate. His  discovery  had  created  such  a  sensation  in  tlie 
agricultural  world,  that  it  was  thought  important  to  record 
its  details ;  and,  as  Elkingtoirs  health  was  extremely  pre- 
carious, the  Board  resolved  to  send  Mr.  John  Johnstone 
to  visit,  in  company  with  him,  his  principal  works  of 
drainage,  and  to  transmit  to  posterity  the  benefits  of  his 
knowledge. 

Accordingly,  Mr.  John  Johnstone,  having  carefully 
studied  Elkington's  system,  under  its  author,  in  the  peri- 
patetic method,  undertook,  like  Plato,  to  record  the  say- 
ings of  his  master  in  science,  and  produced  a  work,  enti- 
tled, "  An  Account  of  the  Most  Approved  Mode  of  Drain- 
ing Land,  According  to  the  System  Practised  by  Mr. 
Joseph  Elkington."  It  was  published  at  Edinburgh,  in 
1797.  Mr.  Gisborne  says,  that  Elkington  found  in  John- 
stone  "  a  very  inefficient  exponent  of  his  opinions,  and  of 
the  principles  on  which  he  conducted  his  works." 

"  Every  one."  says  he,  "  who  reads  the  work,  which  is  popularly 
called  '  Elkington  on  Draining.'  should  be  aware,  that  it  is  not  Joseph 
who  thinks  and  speaks  therein,  but  John,  who  tells  his  readers  what, 
according  to  his  ideas,  Joseph  would  have  thought  and  spoken." 

Again — 

ci  Johnstone,  measured  by  general  capacity,  is  a  very  shallow 
drainer  !  He  delights  in  exceptional  cases,  of  which  he  may  have  met 
with  some,  but  of  which,  we  suspect  the  great  majority  to  be  products 
of  his  own  ingenuity,  and  to  be  put  forward,  with  a  view  to  display  the 
ability  with  which  he  could  encounter  them." 

Johnstone's  report  seems  to  have  undergone  several  re- 
visions, and  to  have  been  enlarged  and  reproduced  in 
other  forms  than  the  original,  for  we  find,  that,  in  1 838,  it 
was  published  in  the  United  States,  at  Petersburg,  Yir- 


HISTOKY   OF   DRAINING.  29 

ginia,  as  a  supplement  to  the  Farmers  Register,  by 
Edmund  Kuffin,  Esq.,  editor,  a  reprint  "from  the  third 
British  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged;"  under  the  follow- 
ing title  : 

"A  Systematic  Treatise  on  the  Theory  and  Practice  of  Draining 
Land,  &c..  according  to  the  most  approved  methods,  and  adapted  to  the 
various  situations  and  soils  of  England  and  Scotland :  also  on  sea,  river, 
and  lake  embankment*,  formation  of  ponds  and  artificial  pieces  of 
water,  with  an  appendix,  containing  hints  and  directions  for  the  culture 
and  improvement  of  bog,  morass,  moor,  and  other  unproductive  ground, 
after  being  drained  \  the  whole  illustrated  by  plans  and  sections  appli- 
cable to  the  various  situations  and  forms  of  construction.  Inscribed  to 
the  Highland  and  Agricultural  Society  of  Scotland,  by  John  Johnstone, 
Land  Surveyor." 

Mr.  Ruffin  certainly  deserves  great  credit  for  his  enter- 
prise in  republishing  in  America,  at  so  early  a  day,  a  work 
of  which  an  English  copy  could  not  be  purchased  for  less 
than  six  dollars,  as  well  as  for  his  zealous  labors  ever  since 
in  the  cause  of  agriculture. 

There  is,  in  this  work  of  Johnstone,  a  quaintness  which 
ho,  probably,  did  not  learn  from  Elkington,  and  which 
ill  astrates  the  character  of  his  mind  as  one  not  peculiarly 
adapted  to  a  plain  and  practical  history  of  another  man's 
system  and  labors.  For  instance,  in  speaking  of  the 
arrangement  of  his  subject  into  parts,  he  says,  in  a  note, 
"  The  subject  being  closely  connected  with  cutting,  section 
is  held  as  a  better  division  than  chapter  !" 

Again,  he  speaks  of  embanking,  and  says  he  lias  some 
experience  on  that  head.  Then  he  a.dds  the  following 
note,  lest  a  possible  pun  should  be  lost  :  "  An  embank- 
ment is  often  termed  a  '  head,'  as  it  makes  head,  or  resist- 
ance, against  the  encroachment  of  high  tide  or  river 
floods." 

There  is  some  danger  that  a  mind  which  scents  a  whim- 
sical analogy  of  meaning  like  this,  may  entirely  lose  the 
main  track  of  pursuit  ;  but  Johnstone's  special  mission 


30  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

was  to  ascertain  Elkington's  method,  and  his  account  of  it 
is,  therefore,  the  best  authority  we  have  on  the  subject. 

He  gives  the  following  statement  of  Elkington's  discov- 
ery : 

"  In  the  year  1763,  Elkington  was  left  by  his  father  in  the  possession 
of  a  farm  called  Prince-Thorp,  in  the  parish  of  Stretton-upon-Dunsmore, 
and  county  of  Warwick.  The  soil  of  this  farm  was  so  poor,  and,  in 
many  places,  so  extremely  wet,  that  it  was  the  cause  of  rotting  several 
hundreds  of  his  sheep,  which  first  induced  him,  if  possible,  to  drain  it 
This  he  begun  to  do,  in  1764.  in  a  field  of  wet  clay  soil,  rendered 
almost  a  swamp,  or  shaking  bog.  by  the  springs  which  issued  from  an 
adjoining  bank  of  gravel  and  sand,  and  overflowed  the  surface  of  the 
ground  below.  To  drain  this  field,  which  was  of  considerable  extent, 
he  cut  a  trench  about  four  or  five  feet  deep,  a  little  below  the  upper 
side  of  the  bog,  where  the  wetness  began  to  make  its  appearance  •  and, 
after  proceeding  with  it  in  this  direction  and  at  this  depth,  he  found  it  did 
not  reach  the  principal  body  of  subjacent  water  from  which  the  evil  arose. 
On  perceiving  this,  he  was  at  a  loss  how  to  proceed,  when  one  of  his  ser- 
vants camo  to  the  field  with  an  iron  croiu,  or  bar,  for  the  purpose  of 
making  holes  for  fixing  sheep  hurdles  in  an  adjoining  part  of  the  farm, 
as  represented  on  the  plan.  Having  a  suspicion  that  his  drain  was  not 
deep  enough,  and  desirous  to  know  what  strata  lay  under  it.  he  took 
the  iron  bar,  and  having  forced  it  down  about  four  feet  below  the  bottom 
of  the  trench,  on  pulling  it  out,  to  his  astonishment,  a  great  quantity 
of  water  burst  up  through  the  hole  he  had  thus  made,  and  ran  along 
the  drain.  This  led  him  to  the  knowledge,  that  wetness  may  be  often 
produced  by  water  confined  farther  below  the  surface  of  the  ground  than 
it  was  possible  for  the  usual  depth  of  drains  to  reach,  and  that  an  auger 
would  be  a  useful  instrument  to  apply  in  such  cases.  Thus,  chance  was 
the  parent  of  this  discovery,  as  she  often  is  of  other  useful  aris  •  and 
fortunate  it  is  for  society,  when  such  accidents  happen  to  those  who 
have  sense  and  judgment  to  avail  themselves  of  hints  thus  fortuitously 
given.  In  this  manner  he  soon  accomplished  the  drainage  o  '  his  whole 
farm,  and  rendered  it  so  perfectly  dry  and  sound,  that  none  of  h^s  flock 
was  ever  after  afFecto4  with  disease. 

"  By  the  success  of  this  experiment,  Mr.  Elkington's  fame,  as  a 
drainer,  was  quickly  Mid  widely  extended ;  and.  after  having  success- 
fully drained  several  fa-rms  in  his  neighborhood,  he  was,  at  last,  very 
generally  employed  for  tfiat  purpose  in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
till  about  thirty  years  ago,  when  the  country  had  the  melancholy  cause 


HISTORY   OF  DRAINING.  31 

to  regret  his  loss.  From  his  long  practice  and  experience,  he  became 
BO  successful  in  the  works  he  undertook,  and  so  skillful  in  judging  of  the 
internal  strata  of  the  earth  arid  the  nature  of  springs,  that,  with  remark- 
able precision,  he  could  ascertain  where  to  find  water,  and  trace  the 
course  of  springs  that  made  no  appearance  on  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
During  his  practice  of  more  than  thirty  years,  he  drained  in  various 
parts  of  England,  particularly  in  the  midland  counties,  many  thousand 
acres  of  land,  which,  from  being  originally  of  little  or  no  value,  soon 
became  as  useful  as  any  in  the  kingdom,  by  producing  the  most  valu- 
able kinds  of  grain  and  feeding  the  best  and  healthiest  species  of  stock. 
Many  have  erroneously  entertained  an  idea  that  Elkington's  skill 
lay  solely  in  applying  the  auger  for  the  tapping  of  'springs,  without  attach- 
ing any  merit  to  his  method  of  conducting  the  drains.  The  accidental  cir- 
cumstance above  stated  gave  him  the  first  notion  of  using  an  auger,  and 
directed  his  attention  to  the  profession  and  practice  of  draining,  in  the 
course  of  which  he  made  various  useful  discoveries,  as  will  be  after- 
wards explained.  With  regard  to  the  use  of  the  auger,  though  there  is 
every  reason  to  believe  that  he  was  led  to  employ  that  instrument  from 
the  circumstance  already  stated,  and  did  not  derive  it  from  any  other 
source  of  intelligence,  yet  there  is  no  doubt  that  others  might  have  hit 
upon  the  same  idea  without  being  indebted  for  it  to  him.  It  has  hap- 
pened, that,  in  attempts  to  discover  mines  by  boring,  springs  have  been 
tapped,  and  ground  thereby  drained,  either  by  letting  the  water  down, 
or  by  giving  it  vent  to  the  surface;  and  that  the  auger  has  been  like- 
wise used  in  bringing  up  water  in  wells,  to  save  the  expense  of  deeper 
digging :  but  that  it  had  been  used  in  draining  land,  before  Mr.  Elking- 
ton  made  that  discovery,  no  one  has  ventured  to  assert." 

Begging  pardon  of  the  shade  of  John  Johnstone  for  the 
liberty,  we  will  copy  from  Mr.  Gisborne,  as  being  more 
clearly  expressed,  a  summary  explanation  of  Elkington's 
system,  as  Mr.  Gisborne  has  deduced  it  from  Johnstone's 
report,  with  two  simple  and  excellent  plans: 

"  A  slight  modification  of  Johnstone's  best  and  simplest  plan,  with  a 
few  sentences  of  explanation,  will  sufficiently  elucidate  Elkington's 
mystery,  and  will  comprehend  the  case  of  all  simple  superficial  springs. 
Perhaps  in  Agricultural  Britain,  no  formation  is  more  common  than 
moderate  elevations  of  pervious  material,  such  as  chalk,  gravel,  and 
imperfect  stone  or  rock  of  various  kinds,  resting  upon  more  horizontal 


32 


FAKM   DKAINAGE. 


beds  of  clay,  or  other  material  less  pervious  than  themselves,  and  at 
their  inferior  edge  overlapped  by  it.  For  this  overlap  geological  reasons 
are  "given,  into  which  we  cannot  now  enter.  In  order  to  make  our 
explanation  simple,  we  use  the  words,  gravel  and  clay,  as  generic  for 
pervious  and  impervious  material. 


Fig.  1. 


:c  Our  drawing  is  an  atiempt  to  combine  plan  and  section,  which  will 
probably  be  sufficiently  illustrative.  From  A  to  T  is  the  overlap, 
which  is,  in  fact,  a  dam  holding  up  the  water  in  the  gravel.  In  this 
dam  there  is  a  weak  place  at  S,  through  which  water  issues  per- 
manently (a  superficial  spring),  and  runs  over  the  surface  from  S  to  0. 
This  issue  has  a  tendency  to  lower  the  water  in  the  gravel  to  the  line 
M  ra.  But  when  continued  rains  overpower  this  issue,  the  water  in 
the  gravel  rises  to  the  line  A  a,  and  meeting  with  no  impediment  at 
the  point  A.  it  flows  over  the  surface  between  A  and  S.  In  addition 
to  these  more  decided  outlets,  the  water  is  probably  constantly  squeezing, 
in  a  slow  way,  through  the  whole  dam.  Elkington  undertakes  to  drain 
the  surface  from  A  to  0.  He  cuts  a  drain  from  0  to  B.  and  then  he 
puts  down  a  bore-hole,  an  Artesian  well.  fronxB  to  Z.  His  hole  enters 
the  tail  of  the  gravel ;  the  water  contained  therein  rises  up  it :  and 
the  tendency  of  this  new  outlet  is  to  lower  the  water  to  the  line  B  b. 
If  so  lowered  that  it  can  no  longer  overflow  at  A  or  at  S.  and  the 
surface  from  A  to  0  is  drained,  so  far  as  the  springs  are  ecr.ee rued, 
though  our  section  can  only  represent  one  spring,  and  one  summit- 
overflow,  it  is  manifest  that,  however  long  the  horizontal  line  of  junc- 
tion between  the  gravel  and  clay  may  be,  however  numerous  the  weak 
places  (springs)  in  the  overlap,  or  dam,  and  the  summit-overflows, 
they  will  all  be  stopped,  provided  they  lie  at  a  higher  level  than  the 
line  B  b.  If  Elkington  had  driven  his  drain  forward  from  B  to  n,  he 
would,  at  least,  equally  have  attained  his  object ;  but  the  bore-hole  wai 


HISTORY   OF   DRAINING. 


33 


less  expensive.  He  escapes  the  deepest  and  most  costly  portion  of  his 
drain.  At  a:,  he  might  have  bored  to  the  centre  of  the  earth  without 
ever  realizing  the  water  in  this  gravel.  His  whole  success,  therefore, 
depended  upon  his  sagacity  in  hitting  the  point  Z.  Another  simple 
and  very  common  case,  first  successfully  treated  by  Elkington,  is 
illustrated  by  our  second  drawing. 


Fig.  2. 

"  Between  gravel  hills  lies  a  dish-shaped  bed  of  clay,  the  gravel 
being  continuous-!  under  the  dish.  Springs  overflow  at  A  and  B,  and 
wet  the  surface  from  A  to  O,  and  from  B  to  0.  O  D  is  a  drain  four  or 
five  feet  deep,  and  having  an  adequate  outlet;  D  Z  a  bore-hole.  The 
water  in  the  gravel  rises  from  Z  to  D,  and  is  lowered  1o  the  level  D  m 
and  D  n.  Of  course  it  ceases  to  flow  over  at  A  and  B.  If  Elkington's 
heart  had  failed  him  when  he  reached  X,  he  would  have  done  no  good. 
All  his  success  depends  on  his  reaching  Z.  however  deep  it  may  lie. 
Elkington  was  a  discoverer.  We  do  not  at  all  believe  that  his  dis- 
coveries hinged  on  the  accident  that  the  shepherd  walked  across  the 
field  with  a  crow-bar  in  his  hand.  When  he  forced  down  that  crow- 
bar, he  had  more  in  his  head  than  was  ever  dreamed  of  in  Johnstone's 
philosophy.  Such  accidents  do  not  happen  to  ordinary  men.  Elking- 
toir  s  subsequent  use  of  his  discovery,  in  which  no  one  has  yet  excelled 
him,  warrants  our  supposition  that  the  discovery  was  not  accidental. 
He  was  not  one  of  those  prophets  who  are  without  honor  in  their  own 
country  :  he  created  an  immense  sensation,  and  received  a  parliamentary 
grant  of  one  thousand  pounds.  One  writer  compares  his  auger  to 
HOSTS'  rod,  and  Arthur  Young  speculates,  whether  though  worthy  to 
2* 


34:  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

be  rewarded  by  millers  on  one  side  of  the  hill  for  increasing  their 
stream,  he  was  not  liable  to  an  action  by  those  on  the  other  for 
diminishing  theirs." 

Johnstone  sums  up  this  system  as  follows  : 

,  £:  Draining  according  to  Elkington's  principles  depends  chiefly  upon 
three  things : 

"  1.   Upon  discovering  the  main  spring,  or  source  of  the  evil. 

"  2.  Upon  taking  the  subterraneous  bearings  :  and, 

"  3dly.  By  making  use  of  the  auger  to  reach  and  tap  the  springs, 
when  the  depth  of  the  drain  is  not  sufficient  for  that  purpose. 

"  The  first  thing,  therefore,  to  be  observed  is.  by  examining  the 
adjoining  high  grounds,  to  discover  what  strata  they  are  composed  of ; 
and  then  to  ascertain,  as  nearly  as  possible,  the  inclination  of  these 
strata,  and  their  connection  with  the  ground  to  be  drained,  and  thereby 
to  judge  at  what  place  the  level  of  the  spring  comes  nearest  to  where 
the  water  can  be  cut  off.  and  most  readily  discharged.  The  surest  way 
of  ascertaining  the  lay,  or  inclination,  of  the  different  strata,  is,  by 
examining  the  bed  of  the  nearest  streams,  and  the  edges  of  the  banks 
that  are  cut  through  by  the  water ;  and  any  pits,  wells,  or  quarries 
that  may  be  in  the  neighborhood.  After  the  main  spring  has  been 
thus  discovered,  the  next  thing  is,  to  ascertain  a  line  on  the  same  level, 
to  one  or  both  sides  of  it,  in  which  the  drain  may  be  conducted,  which 
is  one  of  the  most  important  parts  of  the  operation,  and  one  on  which 
the  art  of  draining  in  a  scientific  manner  essentially  depends. 

"  Lastly,  the  use  of  the  auger,  which,  in  many  cases,  is  the  sine  qua 
non  of  the  business,  is  to  reach  and  tap  the  spring  when  the  depth  of 
the  drain  does  not  reach  it  :  where  the  level  of  the  outlet  will  not 
admit  of  its  being-  cut  to  a  greater  depth ;  and  where  the  expense  of 
such  cutting  would  be  great,  and  the  execution  of  it  difficult. 

According  to  these  principles,  this  system  of  draining  has  been 
attended  with  extraordinary  consequences,  not  only  in  laying  the  land 
dry  in  the  vicinity  of  the  drain,  but  also  springs,  wells,  and  wet  ground, 
at  a  considerable  distance,  with  which  there  was  no  apparent  con- 
nection.77 

DRAINAGE   OF    SPRINGS. 

Wherever,  from  any  cause,  water  bursts  out  from  a 
hill's  side,  or  from  below,  in  a  well  defined  spring,  in  any 
considerable  quantity,  the  Elkington  method  of  cutting  a 


HISTORY    OF   DRAINING. 


35 


deep  drain  directly  into  the  seat  of  the  evil,  and  so  lower- 
ing the  water  that  it  may  be  carried  away  below  the  sur- 
face, is  obviously  the  true  and  common-sense  remedy. 
There  may  be  cases  where,  in  addition  to  the  drain,  it  may 
be  expedient  to  bore  with  an  anger  in  the  course  of  the 
drain.  This,  however,  would  be  useful  only  where,  from 
the  peculiar  formation,  water  is  pent  up  upon  a  retentive 
subsoil  in  the  manner  already  indicated.  Elkington's 
method  of  draining  by  boring  is  illustrated  in  the  follow- 
ing cut. 

In  studying  the  history  of 
Elkington's  discovery,  and  es- 
pecially of  his  own  application 
of  it,  it  would  seem  that  he  must 
have  possessed  some  peculiar 
faculty  of  ascertaining  the  sub- 
terranean currents  of  water,  not 
possessed  or  even  claimed  by 
modern  engineers. 

Indeed,  Mr.  Den  ton,  who  may 
rightly  claim  as  much  skill  as  a 
draining  engineer,  perhaps,  as 
any  man  in  England,  expressly 
eays,  "  It  does  not  appear  that 
any  person  now  will  undertake 
to  do  what  Elkington  did  sixty 
years  back." 

In  the  Patent  Office  Report 
for  1851,  at  page  14,  may  be 
found  an  article  entitled,  "  We'  - 
digging,"  in  which  it  is  gravely 
contended,  and  not  without  a 
fair  show  of  evidence,  that  cer 
tain  persons  possess  the  power 
of  indicating,  by  means  of  a  sort  of  divining  rod  of  hazel 
or  willow,  subterraneous  currents  or  springs  of  water. 


36  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

This  povtferhas  been  called  Bletonism,  which  is  defined  by 
Webster  to  be,  "  the  faculty  of  perceiving  and  indicating 
subterraneous  springs  and  currents  by  sensation — so 
called  from  one  Bleton,  of  France,  who  possessed  this 
faculty." 

Under  the  authority  of  "Webster,  and  of  Mr.  Ewbank, 
the  Commissioner  of  Patents,  in  whose  report  the  article 
in  question  was  published  by  the  Government  of  the 
United  States,  it  will  not  be  considered,  perhaps,  as  put- 
ting faith  in  "  water-witchery,"  to  suggest  that,  possibly, 
Elkington  did  really  possess  a  faculty,  not  common  to  all 
mankind,  of  detecting  running  water  or  springs,  even  far 
below  the  surface.  We  have  the  high  authority  of  Tarn 
o'  Shanter  for  the  opinion,  that  witches  cannot  cross  a 
stream  of  water ;  for,  when  pursued  by  the  "  hellish  legion" 
from  Kirk-Alloway,  he  put  his  "  gude  mare  Meg''  to  do 
her  "  speedy  utmost"  for  the  bridge  of  Doori,  knowing 
that, 

"A  running  stream  they  darena  cross." 

If  witches  are  thus  affected  by  flowing  water,  there  is 
no  reason  to  doubt  that  others,  of  peculiar  organization, 
may  possess  some  sensitiveness  at  its  presence. 

It  would  not,  probably,  be  useful  to  pursue  more  into 
detail  the  method  of  Mr.  Elkington.  The  general  prin- 
ciples upon  which  he  wrought  have  been  sufficiently  ex- 
plained. The  miracles  performed  under  his  system  seem 
to  have  ceased  with  his  life,  and,  until  we  receive  some 
new  revelation  as  to  the  mode  of  finding  the  springs 
hidden  in  the  earth,  we  must  be  content  with  the  moderate 
results  of  a  careful  application  of  ordinary  science,  and  not 
be  discouraged  in  our  attempts  to  leave  the  earth  the  belter 
for  our  having  lived  on  it,  if  we  do  not,  like  Elkington, 
succeed  in  draining,  by  a  single  ditch  and  a  few  auger 
holes,  sixty  statute  acres  of  land. 


HISTORY   OF   DRAINING.  37 

THE   DEANSTON    SYSTEM;    OR,    FREQUENT   DRAINAGE. 

James  Smith,  Esq.,  of  Deanston,  Sterlingshire,  in  Scot- 
land, next  after  Elkington,  in  point  of  time,  is  the  promi- 
nent leader  of  drainage  operations  in  Great  Britain.  His 
peculiar  views  came  into  general  notice  about  1832,  and, 
in  1844,  we  find  published  a  seventh  edition  of  his  "  Ke- 
marks  on  Thorough  Draining."  Smith  was  a  man  of  edu- 
cation, and  seems  to  be,  in  fact,  the  first  advocate  of  any 
system  worthy  the  name  of  thorough  drainage. 

Instead  of  the  few  very  deep  drains,  cut  with  reference 
to  particular  springs  or  sources  of  wetness,  adopted  by 
Elkington,  Smith  advocated  and  practiced  a  systematic 
operation  over  the  whole  field,  at  regular  distances  and 
shallow  depths.  Smith  states,  that  in  Scotland,  much 
more  injury  arises  from  the  retention  of  rain  water,  than 
from  springs  ;  while  Elkington's  attention  seems  to  have 
been  especially  directed  to  springs,  as  the  source  of  the 
evil. 

The  characteristic  views  of  Smith,  of  Deanston,  as  stated 
by  Mr.  Dent  on,  were  : 

"  1st.  Frequent  drains  at  intervals  of  from  ten  to  twenty-four  feet. 

"  2nd.  Shallow  depth — not  exceeding  thirty  inches — designed  for  the 
single  purpose  of  freeing  that  depth  of  soil  from  stagnant  and  injurious 
Water. 

"  3rd.  '  Parallel  drains  at  regular  distances  carried  throughout  the 
whole  field,  without  reference  to  the  wet  and  dry  appearance  of  por- 
tions of  the  field,'  in  order  { to  provide  frequent  opportunities  for  the 
water,  rising  from  below  and  falling  on  the  surface,  to  pass  freely  and 
completely  off. 

"  4th.  Direction  of  the  minor  drains  l  down  the  steep,'  and  that  ol 
the  mains  along  the  bottom  of  the  chief  hollow ;  tributary  mains  being 
provided  for  the  lesser  hollows. 

"  The  reason  assigned  for  the  minor  drains  following*  the  line  Oi 
steepest  descent,  was,  that  '  the  stratification  generally  lies  in  sheets  at 
an  angle  to  the  surface.' 

"  5th   As  tt  material — Stones  preferred  to  tiles  and  pipes." 


38  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

Mr.  Smith  somewhat  modified  his  views  during  the  last 
years  of  his  life,  especially  as  to  the  depth  of  drains,  and, 
instead  of  shallow  drains,  recommended  a  depth  of  three 
feet,  and -even  more  in  some  cases  ;  but  continued,  to  the 
time  of  his  death,  which  occurred  about  185 J-,  to  oppose 
any  increased  intervals  between  the  drains,  and  the  ex- 
treme depth  of  four  feet  and  more  advocated  by  others. 
The  peculiar  points  insisted  on  by  Smith  were,  that  drains 
should  be  near  and  parallel.  His  own  words  are : 

u  The  drains  should  be  parallel  with  each  other  and  at  regular  dis- 
tances, and  should  be  carried  throughout  the  whole  field,  without  regard 
to  the  wet  and  dry  appearance  of  portions  of  the  field — the  principle  of 
this  system  being  the  providing  of  frequent  opportunities  for  the  water 
rising  from  below,  or  falling  on  the  surface,  to  pass  freely  and  com- 
pletely off." 

Mr.  Smith  called  it  the  "  frequent  drain  system,"  and 
Mr.  Denton  says,  that,  "  for  distinction  sake,  I  have  ven- 
tured to  christen  this  ready-made  practice,  the  gridiron 
system"  a  name,  by  the  way,  which  will,  probably,  seem 
to  most  readers  more  distinctive  than  respectful.  What- 
ever may  be  the  improvements  on  the  Deanston  method 
of  draining,  the  name  of  Mr.  Smith  deserves,  and,  indeed, 
has  already  obtained,  a  high  place  among  the  improvers 
of  agriculture. 

VIEWS    OF   MK.    PARKES. 

About  the  year  1846,  when  the  first  Act  of  the  British 
Parliament  authorizing  "  the  advance  of  public  money  to 
promote  the  improvement  of  land  by  works  of  drainage" 
was  passed,  a  careful  investigation  of  the  whole  subject 
was  made  by  a  Committee  of  the  House  of  Lords,  and  it 
was  found  that  the  best  recorded  opinions,  if  we  except 
the  peculiar  views  of  Elkington,  were  represented  by,  if 
not  merged  into,  those  of  Smith,  of  Deanston,  which  have 
already  been  stated,  or  those  of  Josiah  Parkes.  Mr. 
Parkes  is  the  author  of  "  Essays  on  the  Philosophy  and 


HISTORY    OF   DRAINING.  39 

Art  of  Land  Drainage,"  and  of  many  valuable  papers  on 
the  same  subject,  published  in  the  journal  of  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society,  of  which  he  was  consulting  engineer. 
He  is  spoken  of  by  Mr.  Denton  as  "  one  whose  philo- 
sophical publications  on  the  same  subject  gave  a  scientific 
bearing  to  it,  quite  irreconcilable  with  the  more  mechan- 
ical rules  laid  down  by  Mr.  Smith." 

The  characteristic  views  of  Mr.  Parkes,  as  set  forth  at 
that  time,  as  compared  with  those  of  Mr.  Smith,  are — 

"  1st.  Less  frequent  drains,  at  intervals  varying  from  twenty-one  to 
fifty  feet,  with  preference  for  wide  intervals. 

li  2nd.  Deeper  drains  at  a  minimum  depth  of  four  feet,  designed  with 
the  two-fold  object  of  not  only  freeing  the  active  soil  from  stagnant  and 
iigurious  water,  but  of  converting  the  water  falling  on  the  surface  into 
an  agent  for  fertilizing  ]  no  drainage  being  deemed  efficient  that  did  not 
both  remove  the  water  falling  on  the  surface,  and  :  keep  down  the  sub- 
terranean water  at  a  depth  exceeding  the  power  of  capillary  attraction 
to  elevate  it  to  near  the  surface.' 

"  3rd.  Parallel  arrangement  of  drains,  as  advocated  by  Smith,  of 
Deanston. 

'•  4th.  The  advantage  of  increased  depth,  as  compensating  for  increased 
width  between  the  drains. 

"  5th.  Pipes  of  an  inch  bore,  the  l  best  known  conduit '  for  the  parallel 
drains.  (See  Evidence  before  Lords'  Committee  on  Entailed  Estates, 
1845,  Q.  67.) 

"  6th.  The  cost  of  draining  uniform  clays  should  not  exceed  £3  per 
acre}' 

The  most  material  differences  between  the  views  of 
these  two  leaders  of  what  have  been  deemed  rival  systems 
of  drainage,  will  be  seen  to  be  the  following.  Smith 
advocates  drains  of  two  to  three  feet  in  depth,  at  from 
ten  to  twenty-four  feet  distances  ;  while  Parkes  contends 
for  a  depth  of  not  less  than  four  feet,  with  a  width  between 
of  from  twenty-one  to  fifty  feet,  the  depth  in  some  measure 
compensating  for  the  increased  distance. 

Mr.  Parkes  advocated  the  use  of  pipes  of  one  inch  bore, 


40 


FAEM   DRAINAGE. 


which  Mr.  Smith  contemptuously  denominated  "  pencil- 
cases,  "'  and  which  subsequent  experience  has  shown  to  be 
quite  too  small  for  prudent  use. 

The  estimate  of  Mr.  Parkes,  based,  in  part,  upon  his 
wide  distances  and  small  pipes,  that  drainage  might  be 
effected  generally  in  England  at  a  cost  of  about  fifteen 
dollars  per  acre,  was  soon  found  to  be  far  below  the 
average  expense,  which  is  now  estimated  at  nearly  double 
that  sum. 

The  Enclosure  Commissioners,  after  the  most  careful 
inquiry,  adopted  fully  the  views  of  Mr.  Parkes  as  to  the 
depth  of  drains.  Mr.  Parkes  himself,  saw  occasion  to 
modify  his  ideas,  as  to  the  cost  of  drainage,  upon  further 
investigation  of  the  subject,  and  fixed  his  estimates  as 
ranging  from  $15  to  $30  per  acre,  according  to  soil  and 
other  local  circumstances. 

It  has  been  well  said  by  a  recent  English  writer,  of  Mr. 
Parkes : 

"  That  gentleman's  services  in  the  cause  of  drainage,  have  been  in- 
estimable, and  his  high  reputation  will  not  be  affected  by  any  remarks 
which  experience  may  suggest  with  reference  to  details,  so  long  as  the 
philosophical  principles  he  first  advanced  in  support  of  deep  drainage 
are  acknowledged  by  thinking  men.  Mr.  Parkes'  practice  in  1854,  will 
be  found  to  differ  very  considerably  from  his  anticipations  of  1845,  but 
the  influence  of  his  earlier  writings  and  sayings  continues  to  this  day.'' 

THE    KEYTIIORPE    SYSTEM. 

Lord  Berners  having  adopted  a  method  of  drainage  on 
his  estate  at  IKeylliorpe,  differing  somewhat  from  any  of 
the  regular  and  more  uniform  modes  which  have  been 
considered,  a  sharp  controversy  as  to  its  merits  has  arisen, 
and  still  continues  in  England,  which,  like  most  contro- 
versies, may  be  of  more  advantage  to  others  than  to  the 
parties  immediately  concerned. 

The  theory  of  the  Keythorpe  system  seems  to  have  been 
invented  by  Mr.  Joshua  Trimmer,  a  distinguished  geologist 


HISTORY    OF    DRAINING .  4 

of  England,  who,  about  1854,  produced  a  paper,  which 
was  published  in  the  journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  on  the  "  Keythorpe  System."  He  states  that  his 
own  theory  was  based  entirely  on  his  knowledge  of  the 
geological  structure  of  the  earth,  which  will  be  presently 
given  in  his  own  language,  and  that  he  afterwards  ascer- 
tained that  Lord  Berners,  who  had  no  special  theory  to 
vindicate,  had,  by  the  "  tentative  process,"  or  in  plain 
English,  by  trying  experiments,  hit  upon  substantially 
the  same  system,  and  found  it  to  work  admirably. 

Most  people  in  the  United  States  have  no  idea  of  what 
it  is  to  be  patronized  by  a  lord.  In  England,  it  is  thought 
by  many  to  be  the  thing  needful  to  the  chance,  even,  of 
success  of  any  new  theory,  and  accordingly,  Mr.  Trimmer, 
without  hesitation,  availed  himself  of  the  privilege  of 
being  patronized  by  Lord  Berners  ;  and  the  latter,  before 
he  was  aware  of  how  much  the  agricultural  world  was 
indebted  to  him  for  his  valuable  discoveries,  suddenly 
found  himself  at  the  head  of  the  "  Keythorpe  System  of 
Drainage." 

His  lordship  was  probably  as  much  surprised  to  ascer- 
tain that  he  had  been  working  out  a  new  system,  as  some 
man  of  whom  we  have  heard,  was,  to  learn  that  he  had 
been  speaking  prose  all  his  life  !  At  the  call  of  the  public, 
however,  his  lordship  at  once  gave  to  the  world  the  facts 
in  his  possession,  making  no  claim  to  any  great  discovery, 
and  leaving  Mr.  Trimmer  to  defend  the  new  system  as 
best  he  might.  The  latter,  in  one  of  hie  pamphlets  pub- 
lished in  defence  of  the  Keythorpe  system,  states  its  claims 
as  follows : 

"  The  peculiarities  of  the  Keythorpe  system  of  draining  consist  in 
this — that  the  parallel  drains  are  not  equidistant,  and  that  they  cross 
the  line  of  the  greatest  descent.  The  usual  depth  is  three  and  a  half 
feet,  but  some  are  as  deep  as  five  and  six  feet.  The  depth  and  width 
of  interval  are  determined  by  digging  trial-holes,  in  order  to  ascertain 
not  only  the  depth  at  \vhich  the  bottom  water  is  reached,  but  the  height 


4-5  FARV    DRAINAGE. 

to  which  the  water  rises  in  the  holes,  and  the  distance  at  which  a  drain 
will  lay  the  hole  dry.  In  sinking  these  holes,  clay-banks  are  found 
wiih  hollows  or  furrows  between  them,  which  are  filled  with  a  moi't 
poious  soil,  as  represented  in  the  annexed  sectional  diagram. 


Fig.  4. 

««  Trial -holes. 

&  Clay-banks  of  lias  or  of  boulder-clay. 

c  A  more  porous  warp-drift  filling  furrows  between  the  clay-banks. 

"The  next  object  is  to  connect  these  furrows  by  drains  laid  across 
them.  The  result  is,  that  as  the  furrows  and  ridges  here  run  along 
the  fall  of  the  ground,  which  I  have  observed  to  be  the  case  generally 
elsewhere,  the  submains  follow  the  fall,  and  the  parallel  drains  cross 
it  obliquely. 

"  The  intervals  between  the  parallel  drains  are  irregular,  varying,  in 
the  same  field,  from  14  to  21,  31.  and  59  feet.  The  distances  are  de- 
termined by  opening  the  diagonal  drains  at  the  greatest  distance  from 
the  trial-holes  at  which  experience  has  taught  the  practicability  of  its 
draining  the  hole.  If  it  does  not  succeed  in  accomplishing  the  object, 
another  drain  is  opened  in  the  interval.  It  has  been  found,  in  many 
cases,  that  a  drain  crossing  the  clay-banks  and  furrows  takes  the  water 
from  holes  lying  lower  down  the  hill  ;  that  is  to  say,  it  intercepts  the 
water  flowing  to  them  through  these  subterranean  channels.  The  par- 
allel drains,  however,  are  not  invariably  laid  across  the  fall.  The  ex- 
ceptions are  on  ground  where  the  fall  is  very  slight,  in  which  case  they 
are  laid  along  the  line  of  greatest  descent.  On  such  grounds  there  are 
few  or  no  clay-banks  and  furrows." 

It  would  seem  highly  probable  that  the  mode  of  drain- 
age adopted  at  Keythorpe,  is  indebted  for  its  success 
at  that  place,  to  a  geological  formation  not  often  met  with. 
At  a  public  discussion  in  England,  Mr.  T.  Scott,  a  gentle- 
man of  large  experience  in  draining,  stated  that  "he 
never,  in  his  practice,  had  met  with  such  a  geological 


HISTORY   OF   DRAINING.  43 

formation  as  was  said  to  exist  at  Keythorpe,  except  in 
such  large  areas  as  to  admit  of  their  being  drained  in  the 
usual  gridiron  or  parallel  fashion.'' 

It  is  claimed  for  this  system  by  its  advocates,  that  it  is 
far  cheaper  than  any  other,  because  drains  are  only  laid 
in  the  places  where,  by  careful  examination  beforehand, 
by  opening  pits,  they  are  found  to  be  necessary ;  and  that 
is  a  great  saving  of  expense,  when  compared  with  the 
system  of  laying  the  drains  at  equal  distances  and  depths 
over  the  field. 

Against  what  is  urged  as  the  Keythorpe  system,  several 
allegations  are  brought. 

In  the  first  place,  that  it  is  in  fact  no  system.  Mr.  Den- 
ton,  having  carefully  examined  the  Keythorpe  estate,  and 
the.  published  statements  of  its  owner,  asserts,  that  the 
drains  there  laid  have  no  uniformity  of  depth — part  of  the 
tiles  being  laid  but  eighteen  inches  deep,  and  others  four 
feet  and  more,  in  the  same  field. 

Secondly,  that  there  is  no  uniformity  as  to  direction — 
part  of  the  drains  being  laid  across  the  fall,  and  part  with 
the  fall,  in  the  same  fields — with  no  obvious  reason  for  the 
difference  of  direction. 

Thirdly,  that  there  is  no  uniformity  as  to  materials — a 
part  of  the  drains  being  wood,  and  a  part  tiles,  in  the 
same  field. 

Finally,  it  is  contended  that  there  is  no  saving  of 
expense  in  the  Keythorpe  draining,  over  the  ordinary 
mode,  when  all  points  are  considered, -because  the  pre- 
tended saving  is  made  by  the  use  of  wood,  wrhere  true 
economy  would  require  tiles,  and  shallow  drains  are  used 
where  deeper  ones  would  in  the  end  be  cheaper. 

In  speaking  of  this  controversy,  it  is  due  to  Lord 
Berners  to  say,  that  he  expressly  disclaims  any  invention 
or  novelty  in  his  operations  at  Keythorpe. 

On  the  whole,  although  a  work    at  the  present  day 


4:4:  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

which  should  pass  over,  without  consideration,  the  claims 
of  the  Keythorpe  system,  would  be  quite  incomplete  in  its 
history  of  the  subject,  yet  the  facts  elicited  with  regard 
to  it  are  perhaps  chiefly  valuable,  as  tending  to  show  the 
danger  of  basing  a  general  principle  upon  an  isolated 
case. 

The  discussion  of  the  claims  of  that  system — if  such  it 
may  be  called — may  be  valuable  in  America,  where 
novelty  is  sure  to  attract,  by  showing  that  one  more  form 
of  error  has  already  been  tried  and  "found  wanting;" 
and  so  save  us  the  trouble  of  proving  its  in  utility  by 
experiment. 

THE    WHAENCLIFFE    SYSTEM. 

Lord  Wharncliffe,  with  a  view  to  effect  adequate  drain- 
age at  less  expense  than  is  usual  in  thorough  drainage, 
has  adopted  upon  his  estate  a  sort  of  compromise  system, 
which  he  has  brought  to  the  notice  of  the  public  in  the 
Journal  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society. 

Upon  Fontenelle's  idea,  that  "  mankind  only  settle  into 
the  right  course  after  passing  through  and  exhausting  all 
the  varieties  of  error,"  it  is  well  to  advise  our  readers  of 
this  particular  form  of  error  also — to  show  that  it  has 
already  been  tried — so  that  no  patent  of  invention  can  be 
claimed  upon  it  by  those  perverse  persons  who  are  not 
satisfied  without  constant  change,  and  who  seern  to  imagine 
that  the  ten  commandments  might  be  improved  by  a  new 
edition. 

Lord  Wharncliffe  states  his  principles  as  follows,  and 
calls  his  method  the  combined  system  of  deep  and  shallow 
drainage : 

"  In  order  to  secure  the  full  effect  of  thorough  drainage  in  clays,  it  is 
necessary  that  there  should  be  not  only  well-laid  conduits  for  the  water 
which  reaches  them,  but  also  subsidiary  passages  opened  through  the 
substance  of  the  close  subsoil,  by  means  of  atmospheric  heat,  snid  the 
contraction  which  ensues  from  it.  The  cracks  and  fissures  whict  '^sult 


HISTORY    OF   DRAINING.  45 

from  this  action,  are  reckoned  upon  as  a  certain  and  essential  part  of 
the  process. 

"  To  give  efficiency,  therefore,  to  a  system  of  deep  drains  beneath  a 
stiff  clay,  these  natural  channels  are  required.  To  produce  them,  there 
must  be  a  continued  action  of  heat  and  evaporation.  If  we  draw  off 
effectually  and  constantly  the  bottom  water  from  beneath  the  clay  and 
from  its  substance,  as  far  as  it  admits  of  percolation,  and  by  some  other 
means  provide  a  vent  for  the  upper  water,  which  needs  no  more  than 
this  facility  to  run  freely,  there  seems  good  reason  to  suppose  that  the 
object  may  be  completely  attained,  and  that  we  shall  remove  the 
moisture  from  both  portions  as  effectually  as  its  quantity  and  the  sub- 
stance will  permit.  Acting  upon  this  view,  then,  after  due  considera- 
tion, I  determined  to  combine  with  the  fundamental  four-feet  drains  a 
system  of  auxiliary  ones  of  much  less  depth,  which  should  do  their 
work  above,  and  contribute  their  share  to  the  wholesome  discharge, 
while  the  under-current  from  their  more  subterranean  neighbors  should 
be  steadily  performing  their  more  difficult  duty. 

"  I  accomplished  this,  by  placing  my  four-feet  drains  at  a  distance  of 
from  eighteen  to  twenty  yards  apart,  and  then  leading  others  into  them, 
sunk  only  to  about  two  feet  beneath  the  surface  (which  appeared,  upon 
consideration,  to  be  sufficiently  below  any  conceivable  depth  of  culti- 
vation), and  laying  these  at  a  distance  from  each  other  of  eight  yards. 
These  latter  are  laid  at  an  acute  angle  with  the  main-drains,  and  at 
their  mouths  are  either  gradually  sloped  downwards  to  the  lower  level, 
or  have  a  few  loose  stones  placed  in  the  same  intervals  between  the  two, 
sufficient  to  ensure  the  perpendicular  descent  of  the  upper  stream 
through  that  space,  which  can  never  exceed,  or,  indeed,  strictly  equal, 
the  additional  two  feet." 

There  are  two  reasons  why  this  mode  of  drainage  can- 
not be  adopted  in  the  northern  part  of  the  United  States. 

First :  The  two-foot  drains  would  be  liable  to  be  frozen 
up  solid,  every  winter. 

Secondly :  The,  subsoil  plow,  now  coming  into  use 
among  our  best  cultivators,  runs  to  so  great  a  depth  as  to 
be  likely  to  entirely  destroy  two-foot  drains  at  the  first 
operation,  even  if  it  were  not  intended  to  run  the  sub- 
soiler  to  a  greater  general  depth  than  eighteen  inches. 
Any  one  who  has  had  experience  in  holding  a  subsoil- 


46  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

plow,  must  know  that  it  is  an  implement  somewhat  un 
manageable,  and  liable  to  plunge  deep  into  soft  spots  like 
the  covering  over  drains ;  so  that  no  skill  or  care  could 
render  its  use  safe  over  two-foot  drains. 

The  history  of  drainage  in  America,  is  soon  given.  It 
begins  here,  as  it  must  begin  everywhere,  when  practiced 
as  a  general  system,  with  the  introduction  of  tiles. 

In  1835,  Mr.  John  Johnston,  of  Seneca  County,  New 
York,  a  Scotchman  by  birth,  imported  from  Scotland  pat- 
terns of  drain-tiles,  and  caused  them  to  be  made  by  hand- 
labor,  and  set  the  example  of  their  use  on  his  own  farm. 
The  effects  of  Mr.  Johnston's  operations  were  so  striking, 
that  in  1848,  John  Delafield,  Esq.,  for  a  long  time  Pre- 
sident of  the  Seneca  County  Agricultural  Society,  im- 
ported from  England  one  of  Scragg's  Patent  Tile  machines. 
From  that  time,  tile-draining  in  that  county,  and  in  the 
neighboring  counties,  has  been  diligently  and  profitably 
pursued.  Several  interesting  statements  of  successful  ex- 
periments by  Mr.  Johnston,  Mr.  Delafield,  Mr.  Theron  G. 
Yeomans  of  Wayne  County,  and  others,  have  been  pub- 
lished, from  time  to  time,  in  the  "  New  York  Transactions." 
Indeed,  most  of  our  information  of  experimental  draining 
in  this  country,  has  come  from  that  quarter. 

Mr.  Johnston,  for  more  than  twenty  years,  has  made 
himself  useful  to  the  country,  and  at  the  same  time  gained 
a  wide  reputation  for  himself,  by  occasional  publications 
on  the  subject  of  drainage. 

In  addition  to  this,  his  practical  knowledge  of  agri 
culture,  and  especially  of  the  subject  of  drainage,  has 
gained  for  him  a  competence  for  his  declining  years.  In 
this  we  rejoice;  and  trust  that  in  these,  his  latter  years, 
he  may  be  made  ever  to  feel,  that,  even  they  among  us 
of  the  friends  of  agriculture  who  have  not  known  him 
personally,  are  not  umnindul  of  their  obligations  to  him  as 
the  leader  of  a  most  beneficent  enterprise. 


HISTOKY    OF   DRAINING. 

Tile- works  have  since  been  established  at  various  places 
in  New  York,  at  several  places  in  Massachusetts,  Ohio, 
Michigan,  and  many  other  States.  The  first  drain-tiles 
used  in  New-Hampshire,  were  brought  from  Albany,  in 
1854,  by  Mr.  William  Conner,  and  used  on  his  farm  in 
Exeter,  that  year;  and  the  following  year,  the  writer 
brought  some  from  Albany,  and  laid  them  on  his  farm,  in 
the  same  town. 

In  1857,  tile-works  were  put  in  operation  at  Exeter; 
and  some  40,000  tiles  were  made  that  year. 

The  horse-shoe  tiles,  we  understand,  have  been  gen- 
erally used  in  New  York.  At  Albany,  and  in  Massa- 
chusetts, the  sole-tile  has  been  of  late  years  preferred. 
"We  cannot  learn  that  cylindrical  pipes  have  ever  been 
manufactured  in  this  country  until  the  Summer  of  1858? 
when  the  engineers  of  the  New  York  Central  Park  pro- 
cured them  to  be  made,  and  laid  them,  with  collars,  in 
their  drainage- works  there.  This  is  believed  to  be  the 
first  practical  introduction  into  this  country  of  round  pipes 
and  collars,  which  are  regarded  in  England  as  the  most 
perfect  means  of  drainage. 

Experiments  all  over  the  country,  in  reclaiming  bog- 
meadows,  and  in  draining  wet  lands  with  drains  of  stone 
and  wood,  have  been  attempted,  with  various  success. 

Those  attempts  we  regard  as  merely  efforts  in  the  right 
direction,  and  rather  as  evidence  of  a  general  conviction 
of  the  want,  by  the  American  farmer,  of  a  cheap  and  effi 
cient  mode  of  drainage,  than  as  an  introduction  of  a 
system  of  thorough  drainage ;  for — as  we  think  will  ap- 
pear in  the  course  of  this  work — no  system  of  drainage 
can  be  made  sufficiently  cheap  and  efficient  for  general 
adoption,  with  other  materials  than  drain-tiles. 


FARM  DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER  HI. 

RAIN,    EVAPORATION,    AND    FILTRATION. 

Fertilizing  Substances  in  Rain  Water. — Amount  of  Rain  Fall  in  United 
States — in  England. — Tables  of  Rain  Fall. — Number  of  Rainy  Days,  and 
Quantity  of  Rain  each  Month. — Snow,  how  Computed  as  Water. — Pro- 
portion of  Rain  Evaporated. — What  Quantity  of  Water  Dry  Soil  will  Hold. 
— Dew  Point. — How  Evaporation  Cools  Bodies. — Artificial  Heat  Under- 
ground.— Tables  of  Filtration  and  Evaporation. 

ALTHOUGH  we  usually  regard  drainage  as  a  means  of 
rendering  land  sufficiently  dry  for  cultivation,  that  is  by 
no  means  a  comprehensive  view  of  the  objects  of  the 
operation. 

Rain  is  the  principal  source  of  moisture,  and  a  sur- 
plus of  moisture  is  the  evil  against  which  we  contend  in 
draining.  But  rain  is  also  a  principal  source  of  fertility, 
not  only  because  it  affords  the  necessary  moisture  to  dis- 
solve the  elements  of  fertility  already  in  the  soil,  but  also 
because  it  contains  in  itself,  or  brings  with  it  from  the 
atmosphere,  valuable  fertilizing  substances.  In  a  learned 
article  by  Mr.  Caird,  in  the  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  on 
the  Rotation  of  Crops,  he  says  : 

"  The  surprising  effects  of  a  fallow,  even  when  unaided  by  any 
manure,  has  received  some  explanation  by  the  rec§nt  discovery  of  Mr. 
Barral,  that  rain-water  contains  within  itself.and  conveys  into  the  soil, 
fertilizing  substances  of  the  utmost  importance,  equivalent,  in  a  fall  of 
rain  of  24  inches  per  annum,  to  the  quantity  of  ammonia  contained  in 
2  cwt.  of  Peruvian  guano,  with  150  Ibs.  of  nitrogeneous  matter  besides, 
all  suited  to  the  nutrition  of  our  crops." 


KAIN    AND   EVAPORATION.  49 

About  42  inches  of  rain  may  be  taKen  as  a  fair  general 
average  of  the  rain-fall  in  the  United  States.  If  this  sap- 
plies  as  much  ammonia  to  the  soil  as  3  cwt.  of  Peruvian 
guano  to  the  acre,  which  is  considered  a  liberal  manuring, 
and  which  is  valuable  principally  for  its  ammonia,  we  at 
once  see  the  importance  of  retaining  the  rain-water  long 
enough  upon  our  fields,  at  least,  to  rob  it  of  its  treasures. 
But  rain-water  has  a  farther  value  than  has  yet  been  sug- 
gested : 

"  Rain-water  always  contains  in  solution,  air,  carbonic  acid,  and  am- 
monia. The  two  first  ingredients  are  among  the  most  powerful  disin- 
tegrators of  a  soil.  The  oxygen  of  the  air,  and  the  carbonic  acid  being 
both  in  a  highly  condensed  form,  by  being  dissolved,  possess  very 
powerful  affinities  for  the  ingredients  of  the  soil.  The  oxygen  attacks 
and  oxydizes  the  iron  :  the  carbonic  acid  seizing  the  lime  and  potash 
and  other  alkaline  ingredients  of  the  soil,  produces  a  further  disintegra- 
tion, and  renders  available  the  locked-up  ingredients  of  this  magazine  of 
nutriment.  Before  these  can  be  used  by  plants,  they  must  be  rendered 
soluble  ;  and  this  is  only  affected  by  the  free  and  renewed  access  of 
rain  and  air.  The  ready  passage  of  both  of  these,  therefore,  enables  the 
soil  to  yield  up  its  concealed  nutriment.'* 

We  see,  then,  that  the  rains  of  heaven  bring  us  not  only 
water,  but  food  for  our  plants,  and  that,  while  we  would 
remove  by  proper  drainage  the  surplus  moisture,  we 
should  take  care  to  first  conduct  it  through  the  soil  far 
enough  to  fulfill  its  mission  of  fertility.  We  cannot  sup- 
pose that  all  rain-water  brings  to  our  fields  precisely  the 
same  proportion  of  the  elements  of  fertility,  because  the 
foreign  properties  with  which  it  is  charged,  must  contin- 
ually vary  with  the  condition  of  the  atmosphere  through 
which  it  falls,  whether  it  be  the  thick  and  murky  cloud 
which  overhangs  the  coal-burning  city,  or  the  transparent 
ether  of  the  mountain  tops.  We  may  see,  too,  by  the 
tables,  that  the  quantity  of  rain  that  falls,  varies  much, 
not  only  with  the  varying  seasons  of  the  year,  and  with 
the  different  seasons  of  different  years,  but  with  the  dis- 
3 


50  FARM   DBAINAGE. 

tance  from  the  equator,  the  diversity  of  mountain  and 
river,  and  lake  and  wood,  and  especially  with  locality  as 
to  the  ocean.  Yet  the  average  results  of  nature's  opera- 
tions through  a  series  of  years,  are  startlingly  constant 
and  uniform,  and  we  may  deduce  from  tables  of  rain-falls, 
as  from  bills  of  mortality  and  tables  of  longevity,  conclu- 
sions almost  as  reliable  as  from  mathematical  premises. 

The  quantity  of  rain  is  generally  increased  by  the 
locality  of  mountain  ranges.  "Thus,  at  the  Edinburgh 
"Water  Company's  works,  on  the  Pentland  Hills,  there  fell 
in  1849,  nearly  twice  as  much  rain  as  at  Edinburgh, 
although  the  distance  between  the  two  places  is  only 
seven  miles." 

Although  a  much  greater  quantity  of  rain  falls  in 
mountainous  districts  (within  certain  limits  of  elevation) 
than  in  the  plains,  yet  a  greater  quantity  of  rain  falls  at 
the  surface  of  the  ground  than  at  an  elevation  of  a  few 
hundred  feet.  Thus,  from  experiments  which  were  care- 
fully made  at  York,  it  was  ascertained  that  there  fell 
eight  and  a  half  inches  more  rain  at  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  in  the  course  of  twelve  months,  than  at  the  top 
of  the  Minster,  which  is  212  feet  high.  Similar  results 
have  been  obtained  in  many  other  places. 

Some  observations  upon  this  point  may  also  be  found 
in  the  ^Report  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution  for  1855,  at 
p.  210,  given  by  Professor  C.  W.  Morris,  of  New  York. 

Again,  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  water  being 
much  greater  than  from  the  land,  clouds  that  are  wafted 
by  the  winds  from  the  sea  to  the  land,  condense  their 
vapor  upon  the  colder  hills  and  mountain  sides,  and  yield 
rain,  so  that  high  lands  near  the  sea  or  other  large  bodies 
of  water,  from  which  the  winds  generally  blow,  have  a 
greater  proportion  of  rainy  days  and  a  greater  fall  of  rain 
than  lands  more  remote  from  water.  The  annual  rain- 
fall in  the  lake  districts  in  Cumberland  County,  in  Eng- 
land, sometimes  amounts  to  more  than  150  inches. 


KAIN   AND   EVAPORATION.  51 

With  a  desire  to  contribute  as  much  as  possible  to  the 
stock  of  accurate  knowledge  on  this  subject,  we  availed 
ourselves  of  the  kindly  offered  services  of  our  friends, 
Shedd  and  Edson,  in  preparing  a  carefully  considered 
article  upon  a  part  of  our  general  subject,  which  has 
much  engaged  their  attention.  Neither  the  article  itself, 
nor  the  observations  of  Dr.  Hobbs,  which  form  a  part  of 
its  basis,  has  ever  before  been  published,  and  we  believe 
our  pages  cannot  be  better  occupied  than  by  giving  them 
in  the  language  of  our  friends  : 

"  All  vegetables,  in  the  various  stages  of  growth,  re- 
quire warmth,  air,  and  moisture,  to  support  life  and 
health. 

Below  the  surface  of  the  ground  there  is  a  body  of 
stagnant  water,  sometimes  at  a  great  depth,  but  in  reten- 
tive soils  usually  within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  surface. 
This  stagnant  water  not  only  excludes  the  air,  but  ren- 
ders the  soil  much  colder,  and,  being  in  itself  of  no 
benefit,  without  warmth  and  air,  its  removal  to  a  greater 
depth  is  very  desirable. 

A  knowledge  of  the  depth  to  which  this  water-table 
should  be  removed,  and  of  the  means  of  removing  it,  con- 
stitutes the  science  of  draining,  and  in  its  discussion,  a 
knowledge  of  the  rain-fall,  humidity  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  amount  of  evaporation,  is  very  important. 

The  amount  of  rain -fall,  as  shown  by  the  hyetal,  or 
rain-chart,  of  North  America,  by  Lorin  Blodget,  is  thirty 
inches  vertical  depth  in  the  basin  of  the  great  lakes  ; 
thirty-two  inches  on  Lake  Erie  and  Lake  Champlain ; 
thirty-six  inches  in  the  valley  of  the  Hudson,  on  the  head 
waters  of  the  Ohio,  through  the  middle  portions  of  Penn- 
sylvania and  Virginia,  and  western  portion  of  North 
Carolina ;  forty  inches  in  the  extreme  eastern  and  the 
northern  portion  of  Maine,  northern  portions  of  New 
Hampshire  and  Yermont,  south-eastern  counties  of 


52  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

cluisetts,  Central  New  York,  north-east  portion  of  Penn- 
sylvania, south-east  portion  of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware  ; 
also,  on  a  narrow  belt  running  down  from  the  western 
portion  of  Maryland,  through  Virginia  and  North  Caro- 
lina, to  the  north-western  portion  of  South  Carolina  ; 
thence,  up  through  the  western  portion  of  Virginia,  north- 
east portion  of  Ohio,  Northern  Indiana  and  Illinois,  to 
Prairie  du  Chien ;  forty-two  inches  on  the  east  coast  of 
JVlaine,  Eastern  Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  and  Con- 
necticut, and  middle  portion  of  Maryland  ;  thence,  on  a 
narrow  belt  to  South  Carolina ;  thence,  up  through  Eastern 
Tennessee,  through  Central  Ohio,  Indiana,  and  Illinois, 
tolo\va ;  thence,  down  through  Western  Missouri  and  Texas 
to  tho  Gulf  of  Mexico ;  forty-five  inches  from  Concord, 
New  Hampshire,  through  Worcester,  Mass.,  "Western 
Connecticut,  and  the  City  of  New  York,  to  the  Susque- 
haima  River,  just  north  of  Maryland  ;  also,  at  Rich* 
mor.d,  Va.,  Raleigh,  N.  C.,  Augusta,  Geo.,  Knoxville, 
Tenn.,  Indianopolis,  Ind.,  Springfield,  111.,  St.  Louis,  Mo. ; 
thence,  through  Western  Arkansas,  across  Red  River  to 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  From  the  belt  just  described,  the 
rain-fall  increases  inland  and  southward,  until  at  Mobile, 
Ala.,  the  rain-fall  is  sixty-three  inches.  The  same  amount 
also  falls  in  the  extreme  southern  portion  of  Florida. 

In  England,  the  average  rain-fall  in  the  eastern  portion 
is  represented  at  twenty  inches ;  in  the  middle  portion, 
twenty-two  inches  ;  in  the  southern  and  western,  thirty 
inches ;  in  the  extreme  south-western,  forty-five  inches  19 
and  in  Wales,  fifty  inches.  In  the  eastern  portion  of  Ire- 
land, it  is  twenty-five  inches ;  and  in  the  western,  forty 
inches. 

Observations  at  London  for  forty  years,  by  Dalton, 
gave  average  fall  of  20.69  inches.  Observations  at  New 
Bedford,  Mass.,  for  forty-three  years,  by  S.  Rodman,  gave 
Average  fall  pf  41.03  inches — about  double  the  amount  in 


RAIN   AND   EVAPORATION.  53 

London      The   mean  quantity  for  each  month,  at  both 
places,  is  as  follows : 

New  Bedford.  London. 

January 3.36 1.46 

February 3.32     1.25 

March 3.44     1.17 

April 3.60     1.28 

May 3.63     1.64 

June 2.71      1.74 

July 2.86      2.45 

August 3.61      1.81 

September 3.33     1.84 

October 3.46     2.09 

November 3.97     222 

December  ..  3.74  1.74 


Spring 10.67     „  409 

Summer 9.18 6.00 

Autumn 10.76     6.15 

Winter 10.42     4.45 

Year 41.03     20.69 

Another  very  striking  difference  between  the  two  coun~ 
tries  is  shown  by  a  comparison  of  the  quantity  of  water 
falling  in  single  days.  The  following  table,  given  in  the 
Radcliffe  Observatory  .Reports,  Oxford,  England,  15tb 
volume,  shows  the  proportion  of  very  light  rains  thefc. 
The  observation  was  in  the  year  1854.  Rain  fell  on  356 
days  : 

73  days  gave  less  than 05  inch, 

30  "          between  that  and 10  " 

27  "          between  .10     "     20  " 

9  "  "        .20     "     30  " 

9  "  "        .30     "     40  " 

4  «  «        .40     "      50  " 

1  gave 60  " 

2  "     80     « 

1  "    .  .   1.00     « 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


Neaily  half  the  number  gave  less  fall  than  five-lmn- 
dredtha  of  an  inch,  and  more  than  four-fifths  the  number 
gave  less  than  one-fifth  of  an  inch,  and  none  gave  over  an 
inch. 

There  is  more  rain  in  the  United  States,  by  a  large 
measure,  than  there  ;  but  the  amount  falls  in  less  time,  and 
the  average  of  saturation  is  certainly  much  less  here. 
From  manuscript  records,  furnished  us  by  Dr.  Hobbs,  of 
Waltharn,  Mass.,  we  find,  that  the  quantity  falling  in  the 
year  1854,  was  equal  to  the  average  quantity  for  thirty 
years,  and  that  rain  fell  on  fifty-four  days,  in  the  propor- 
tion as  follows  : 

Number  of  rainy  days,  54  ;  total  rain-fall,  41.29. 
0  days  gave  less  than 05  inch. 


between  that  and 

between  .10  " 

"  .20  " 

"  .30  " 

"  .40  « 

"  .50  " 

"  .60  <; 

"  .70  " 

"  .80  " 

"  .90  " 

"  1.00  " 

"  .10  " 

"  .20  " 

"  .30  " 

"  .40  " 

"  .50  " 

"  1.60  " 

"  1.80  « 

"  2.30  " 

"  2.50  " 

"  3.20  " 


10 

a 

.20 

a 

.30 

u 

.40 

u 

.      ...                    .50 

u 

.60 

u 

70 

u 

.80 

it 

90 

u 

1.00 

u 

...      .            ..     .10 

it 

.20 

u 

30 

It 

.40 

u 

.50 

It 

.     .60 

u 

1.70 

It 

.   1.90 

u 

2.40 

ti 

2.60 

It 

.   3.30 

il 

"No  rain-fall  gave  less  than  five-hundredths  of  an  inch ; 
and  more  than  one  -fourth  the  number  of  days  gave  more 


RAIN   AND  EVAPORATION.  55 

than  one  inch.  In  1850,  four  years  earlier,  the  rain-fall 
for  the  year,  in  Waltham,  was  62.13  inches,  the  greatest 
recorded  by  observations  kept  since  1824.  It  fell  as  shown 
in  the  table  : 

Number  of  rainy  days,  58;  total  rain-fall,  62.13. 

3  days  gave  between  .05  and 10  inches. 

4  "        .10  " 20   " 

6  «  .20  " 30  " 

3  "  .30  " 40  " 

5  "  .40  '• 50  " 

3  "  .50  " 60  " 

3  "  .60  " 70  " 

3  "  .70  " 80  " 

2  "        .80  " 90   " 

1  "        .90  " 1.00   " 

3  "        1.00  "  1.10   " 

7  "       1.20  " 1.30   " 

2  "       1.80  « 1.90   " 

2  "       1.90  " 2.00   « 

3  "       2.00  " 2.10   " 

2       "       2.10  " 2.20   " 

"  2.30  « 2.40  " 

"  2.50  " 2.60  " 

"  2.60  " 2.70  " 

"  2.80  " 2.90  " 

"  3.60  " 3.70  " 

1       "  4.50  " 4.60  " 

Sept.  7th  and  8th,  in  24  hours,  6.88  inches  of  rain  fell, 
the  greatest  quantity  recorded  in  one  day. 

In  1846 — still  earlier  by  four  years — the  rain-fall  in 
Waltham  was  26.90  inches — the  least"  recorded  by  the 
same  observations.  It  fell,  as  shown  in  the  table  :  Num- 
ber of  rainy  days,  49  ;  total  rain-fall,  26.90. 

3  days  gave  between  .05  and 10  inches. 

7       "        .10  "  20   " 

jO       "        .20  "  30   '« 

6       "        .30  "  40   « 

4  "        .40  «  .  .50   « 


56 


FAKM   DRAINAGE. 


3  da 

ys  gave 

between    .50 

2 

u 

.70 

3 

ti 

.80 

1 

a 

.90 

3 

ti 

1.00 

2 

a 

1.10 

1 

cc 

1.20 

2 

u 

1.40 

1 

a 

1.50 

1 

n 

2.40 

.50  and  ..  .60  inches. 


80 

u 

90 

tt 

,00 

u 

10 

u 

20 

tt 

.30 

u 

50 

it 

60 

ti 

i 

2.50 

11 

The  rain-fall  in  1852  was  very  near  the  average  for 
thirty  years  ;  and  the  quantity  falling  in  single  storms,  on 
sixty-three  different  occasions,  as  registered  by  Dr.  Hobbs, 
was  as  follows :  Number  of  storms,  63  ;  total  rain-fall, 
42.24. 

7  storms  gave  less  than 10  inches 


11 
9 
5 
6 
5 
1 
1 
3 
1 
5 
1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 


These  tables  are  sufficient  to  show  that  provision  must 
be  made  to  carry  off  much  greater  quantities  of  water 
from  lands  in  this  country  than  in  England.  We  add  a 
table  of  the  greatest  fall  of  rain  in  any  one  day,  for  each 
month,  and  for  the  vear,  from  April,  1824-,  to  1st  January, 


between 

.10 

and   

20 

u 

.20 

cc 

30 

u 

.30 

a 

40 

u 

.40 

ti 

50 

tt 

.50 

a 

60 

It 

.60 

it 

70 

tt 

.70 

a 

80 

It 

.80 

a 

......     .90 

tt 

.90 

tt 

1.00 

It 

1.00 

it 

1.10 

It 

1.10 

ti 

1.20 

ti 

1.20 

u 

1  30 

tt 

1.40 

tt 

1.50 

it 

1.60 

a 

1.70 

in  5  days. 

• 

3.16 

It     4       1C 

4.38 

"    6     " 

.   5.35 

RAIN    AND    EVAPORATION. 


57 


1859.  It  also  was  abstracted  from  the  manuscript  of 
observations  by  Dr.  Hobbs,  and  will  be,  we  think,  quite 
useful : 


M 

ss 

hrj 
CO 

1 

I 

| 

e—  i 

c 

CO 

£ 

c 
to 

1 

? 

g 

r 

CD 

sf 

en 

EJ 

2 

K 

I 

CD 

3 

3 

of  ®" 

; 

^ 

£5 

, 

1 

r 

cf 

O"1 
CD 

,<,  S- 

i-S 

i 

| 

! 

- 

: 

i 

' 

• 

-t  £°" 

1824 

0.76 

0.67 

0.53 

0.44 

1.90 

254 

0.81 

0.76 

1.80 

2.54 

1825 

2.16 

2.61 

0.27 

1.23 

1.37 

0.91 

2.51 

0.89 

1.32 

0.71 

2.40 

2.61 

1826 

1.80 

0.56 

1.67 

0.89 

0.39 

1.78 

0.87 

1.80 

1.57 

1.37 

1.22  1.41 

1.87 

1827 

3.81 

1.55 

2.42 

0.66 

1.36 

3.16 

493 

2.22 

3.85  1.39 

4.93 

1828 

0.60 

1.48 

1.82 

2.06 

2.01 

1.44 

1.52 

0.14 

1.82 

1.52 

1.90  0.29 

2.06 

1829 

3.86 

1.98 

4.12 

2.35 

1.15 

0.97 

1.92 

0.97 

1.39 

1.00 

1.25!1.58 

4.12 

1830 

1.31 

1.17 

2  68 

2.28 

0.78 

1.84 

2.45 

2.40 

1.20  2.64 

2.44 

2.68 

1831 

0.64 

1.48 

2.32 

2.12 

1.79 

1.87 

2.27 

1.00 

1.00 

2.82  1.24 

0.15 

2.82 

1832 

2.68 

1.59 

2.00 

4.48 

2.52 

1.24 

2.13 

0.80J1.50 

2.60 

1.34 

4.48 

1833 

0.83 

2  57 

0.98 

•2.03 

1.42 

0.64 

2.75i232 

3.12 

1.27 

3.12 

1834 

0.64 

1.31 

0.94 

2.35 

1.87 

2.12 

0.73 

1.25 

1.89 

2.42 

0.92 

2.42 

1835 

1.44 

0.88 

2.48 

2  48 

1.18 

1.52 

4.72 

1.32 

1.57 

3.28 

0.74 

2.32 

4.72 

1836 

2.72 

3.04 

2.26 

1.86 

1.29 

2.24 

1.04 

0.72 

0.36 

2.04 

1.50 

1.68 

3.04 

1837 

3.62 

1.50 

1.14 

1.68 

1.46 

1.30 

0.72 

0.78 

0.66 

1.46 

0.81 

1.68 

3.62 

1838 

1.64 

0.75 

0.76 

1.32 

1.40 

1.67 

0.82 

1.40 

3.84 

1.10 

2.46 

1.00 

3.84 

1839 

0.70 

0.80 

0.58 

4.06 

2.98 

0.94 

1.08 

3.54 

0.70 

1.60 

0.80 

1.92 

4.06 

1840 

1.68 

2.20 

1.54 

2.12 

1.16 

1.08 

1.40 

2.72  1.28 

1.04 

3  72 

1.12 

3.72 

1841 

1.44 

1  12 

1.32 

1.64 

0.90 

0.75 

0.64 

2.82'2.78 

2.66 

1.05 

1.70 

2.82 

1842 

0.54 

1.22 

1.16 

0.64 

0.47 

2.10 

0.68 

1.44 

0.96 

0.34 

1.10 

2.02 

2.10 

1843 

1.60 

1.64 

2.50 

1.34 

0.34 

1.04 

1.98 

2.58 

0.52 

1.94 

1.28 

2.58 

1844 

4.14 

2.06 

0.24 

0.58 

0.78 

0.86 

1.34 

1.76 

2.30 

1.86 

1.28 

4  14 

1845 

2.42 

1.70 

1.14 

0.70 

1.02 

1.03 

1.20 

1.66 

0.88  1.16 

3.32 

1.46 

3.32 

1846 

1.54 

2.46 

1.16 

1.18 

0.82 

1.46 

0.49 

0.56  0.55 

0.54 

1.02 

2.46 

1847 

1.18 

2.74 

1.66 

1.12 

0.84 

1.28 

0.56 

1.86 

2  160.64 

2.74 

3.02 

3.02 

1848 

1.44 

1  .56 

2  68  0.68 

2.28 

1.00 

0.72 

1.24 

1.48  2.96 

0.88 

1.00 

2.96 

'849 

1.36 

0.40 

2.30  0.92 

1.28 

0.72 

1.22 

2.08 

1.12, 

2.60 

2.48 

1  76 

2.60 

850 

2.56 

1.92 

1.84 

2.68 

2.80 

1.20 

1.20 

3.68 

6.88 

.04 

2.16 

1.92  6.88 

180! 

0.80 

1.84 

0.56 

3.60 

1.92 

1.12 

0.96 

0.32 

1.15 

.47 

2.25 

0.89  3.60 

1852 

1.06 

0.88 

1.15 

4.38 

1.47 

1.69 

0  66 

4.16 

1.19 

1.61 

1.59 

0.89J4.38 

1853 

0.92 

1  33 

1.03 

1.12  2.39 

0.42 

1.03 

2.36 

2.14 

.95 

1.67 

1.35 

2.39 

1854 

0.83 

1  60 

1.25 

1.88  2.57 

1.50 

1.58 

0.48 

2.33 

.82 

3.25 

1.43 

3.25 

1855 

3.37 

3  08 

0.80 

1.33  039 

1.23 

1.93 

0  75 

0.70 

.77 

2.22 

1.24 

3.37 

1856 

1.30 

0.63 

1.97  2.93 

0.66 

1.30 

423 

2.42 

0.87 

0.88 

1.20 

4.23 

1857 

1.50 

0.54 

1.55 

3.68  1.28 

0.96 

2.43 

2.00 

0.87 

3.54 

0.67 

1.28 

3.68 

1858 

1.12 

1.18 

0.35 

1.28  1.00 

3.86 

1.35 

2.21 

1.64 

1.22 

1.36 

1.40 

3.86 

53 


FAKM   DRAINAGE. 


The  following  table  shows  the  record  of  rain-fall,  aa 
kept  for  one  year ;  it  was  selected  as  a  representative  year, 
the  total  quantity  falling  being  equal  to  the  average.  For 
the  year  1840  :  Number  of  rainy  days,  50  ;  total  rain-fall, 

42.00. 


p 

3 

6-1 

c 
p 

•^ 

oo 

February  .  . 

s 
1 

> 

V 

P 

x 

C_| 

1 

C_l 

£ 

> 

£ 

OQ 

G 

OB 

September  . 

October  

November.. 

December  . 

I 

o 

| 

; 

'• 

! 

i 

0.55 

0.14 

2.72 

0.64 

2 

0.08 

0.05 

3 

0.32 

4 

1.08 

0.10 

5 

1.16 

0.63 

6 

0.50 

7 

8 

0.20 

9 

0.25 

3.72 

10 

2.20 

1.28 

11 

0.10 

12 

2.12 

0.54 

13 

0.14 

1.12 

14 

0.58 

0.70 

15 

0.36 

16 

17 

18 

19 

0.82 

0.24 

0.68 

1.04 

20 

1.54 

0.44 

21 

0.98 

1.04 

22 

0.52 

2.20 

23 

1.68 

0.96 

0.18 

24 

1.40 

25 

0.16 

0.35 

26 

0.18 

27 

0.17 

0.30 

28 

29 

1.80 

0.10 

1.40 

30 

1.42 

0.08 

1.04 

31 

Total 

1.68 

2.78 

3.28 

5.17 

2.28 

2.41 

2.09 

5.22 

2.89 

3.65 

7.35 

3.20 

RAIN   AND   EVAPORATION.  59 

The  average  quantity  of  rain  which  has  fallen  in  Wai- 
tham,  during  the  important  months  of  vegetation,  from 
1824  to  1858  inclusive — a  period  of  thirty -five  years — is 
for- 

April.  May.  June.  July.  Aug.  Sept. 

3.96  3.71  3.18  3.38  4.50  3.52 

Average  for  the  six  months,  22.25. 

It  will  be  noticed,  that  the  average  for  the  month  of 
August  is  about  33  per  cent,  larger  than  for  June  and 
July.  The  quantity  of  rain  falling  in  each  month,  as  re- 
gistered at  the  Cambridge  Observatory,  is  as  follows : 

MEAN    OF    OBSERVATIONS    TOR    TWELVE    YEARS. 

Jan.      Feb.     Mar.      Apr.    May.    June.     July.     Aug.     Sept.     Oct.      Nov.     Dec. 

2.39    3.19    3.47     3.64    3.74    3.13     2.57     5.47    4.27    3.73    4.57   4.31 

Spring.  Summer.  Autumn.  Winter. 

10.85  11.17  12.57  9.89 

Average  quantity  per  year.  44.48. 

The  quantity  falling  from  January  to  July,  is  much  less 
than  falls  from  July  to  January. 

The  great  quantity  of  snow  which  falls  in  New  England 
during  the  Winter  months,  and  is  carried  off  mainly  in  the 
Spring,  usually  floods  the  low  lands,  and  should  be  taken 
into  account  in  establishing  the  size  of  pipe  to  be  used  in 
a  system  of  drainage.  The  following  observations  of  the 
average  depth  of  snow,  have  been  made  at  the  places 
cited,  and  are  copied,  by  Blodget,  from  various  published 
notices : 

Oxford  Co.,  Me 12  years 90  inches  per  year. 

Dover,  N.  H 10     "     ,..68.6     "  " 

Montreal 10     "     67     "  " 

Burlington,  Vt 10     "     85     "  " 

Worcester,  Mass 12     "     55     "  " 

Amherst,        "     7     "     54     "  « 

Hartford,  Conn 24     "     43     "  « 

Lambertville,  N.  J. . .       8     "     25.5     "  « 

Cincinnati 16     "     19     "  « 

Burlington,  Iowa 4     "     15.5     "  a 

Bel oit,  Wisconsin....       3      »     25     "  ** 


60 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


One-tenth  the  depth  of  snow  is  taken  as  its  equivalent 
in  water,  for  general  purposes,  though  it  gives  too  small  a 
quantity  of  water  in  southern  latitudes,  and  in  extreme 
latitudes  too  great  a  quantity.  The  rule  of  reduction  of 
snow  to  water,  in  cold  climates,  is  one  inch  of  water  to 
twelve  of  snow. 

The  proportion  of  the  annual  downfall  of  rain  which  is 
collectable  into  reservoirs — or,  in  other  words,  the  per 
centage  of  the  rain-fall  which  drains  oif— is  well  shown  in 
a  table  used  by  Ellwood  Morris,  Esq.,  C.  E.,  in  an  article 
on  "  The  Proposed  Improvement  of  the  Ohio  River"  (Jour. 
Frank.  Inst.,  Jan.,  1858),  in  which  we  find,  that,  in  eighteen 
series  of  observations  in  Great  Britain,  the  ratio,  or  per 
cent,  of  the  rain-fall  which  drains  off  is  65J,  or  nearly  two- 
thirds  the  rain-fall. 

Seven  series  of  observations  in  America  are  cited  as 
follows : 


rf 

.SS 

o-g 

Name 

•SJ3 

«.a 

2  * 

No. 

of 

•Si 

&.s 

111 

Authorities. 

Drainage  Area. 

o"* 

|l 

£§! 

1 

Schuylkill  Navigation 

Reservoirs 

36 

18 

50 

Morris  and  Smith 

a 

Eaton  Brook...  

34 

33 

66 

Madison  Brook 

35 

18 

50 

4 

Patroon's  Brook  

46 

25 

55 

[•  McAlpine. 

5 

cc               u 

42 

18 

42 

6 

Lon"  Pond 

40 

18 

44 

Boston  Water  Com  'is. 

7 

West  Fork  Reservoir. 

36 

14 

40 

W.  Milnor  Roberts. 

Totals 

269 

134 

347 

Averages 

38 

19 

50 

These  examples  show  an  average  rain-fall  of  thirty- 
eight  vertical  inches,  and  an  annual  amount,  collectable 
in  reservoirs,  of  nineteen  inches,  or  fifty  per  cent. 

The  percentage  of  wate^1  of  drainage  from  land  unde» 


BAIN    AND   EVAPORATION.  61 

drained  with  tile,  would  be  greater  than  that  which  ia 
collectable  in  reservoirs  from  ordinary  gathering- grounds. 

If  a  soil  were  perfectly  saturated  with  water,  that  is, 
held  as  much  water  in  suspension  as  possible  to  hold 
without  draining  off,  and  drains  were  laid  at  a  proper 
depth  from  the  surface,  and  in  sufficient  number  to  take 
off  all  surplus  water,  then  the  entire  rain-fall  upon  the 
surface  would  be  water  of  drainage — presuming,  of  course, 
the  land  to  be  level,  and  the  air  at  saturation,  so  as  to 
prevent  evaporation.  The  water  coming  upon  the  surface, 
would  force  out  an  equal  quantity  of  water  at  the  bottom, 
through  the  drains — the  time  occupied  by  the  process, 
varying  according  to  the  porous  or  retentive  nature  of  the 
soil ;  but  in  ordinary  circumstances,  it  would  be,  perhaps, 
about  forty-eight  hours.  Drains  usually  run  much  longer 
than  this  after  a  heavy  rain,  and,  in  fact,  many  run  con- 
stantly through  the  year,  but  they  are  supplied  from  lands 
at  a  higher  level,  either  near  by  or  at  a  distance. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  soil  were  perfectly  dry,  hold- 
ing no  water  in  suspension,  then  there  would  be  no  water 
of  drainage  until  the  soil  had  become  saturated. 

Evaporation  is  constantly  carrying  off  great  quantities 
of  water  during  the  warm  months,  so  that  under-drained 
soil  is  seldom  in  the  condition  of  saturation,  and,  on 
account  of  the  supply  by  capillary  attraction  and  by  dew, 
is  never  thoroughly  dry ;  but  the  same  soil  will,  at  different 
times,  be  at  various  points  between  saturation  and  dry- 
ness,  and  the  water  of  drainage  will  be  consequently  a 
greater  or  less  per  centage  of  the  rain-fall. 

An  experiment  made  by  the  writer,  to  ascertain  what 
quantity  of  water  a  dry  soil  would  hold  in  suspension, 
resulted  as  follows  :  A  soil  was  selected  of  about  average 
porosity,  so  that  the  result  might  be,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
a  mean  for  the  various  kinds  of  soil,  and  dried  by  several 
days'  baking.  The  quantity  of  soil  then  being  carefully 


62  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

measured,  a  measured  quantity  of  water  was  supplied 
slowly,  until  it  began  to  escape  at  the  bottom.  The 
quantity  draining  away  was  measured  and  deducted  from 
the  total  quantity  supplied.  It  was  thus  ascertained  that 
one  cubic  foot  of  earth  held  0.4826+  cubic  feet  of  water, 
which  is  a  little  more  than  three  and  one-half  gallons.  A 
dry  soil,  four  feet  deep,  would  hold  a  body  of  water  equal 
to  a  rain-fall  of  23.17  inches,  vertical  depth,  which  is  more 
than  would  fall  in  six  months. 

The  quantity  which  is  not  drained  away  is  used  for 
vegetation  or  evaporated ;  and  the  fact,  that  the  water  of 
drainage  is  so  much  greater  in  proportion  to  the  rain-fall 
in  England  than  in  this  country,  is  owing  to  the  humidity 
of  that  climate,  in  which  the  evaporation  is  only  about 
half  what  it  is  in  this  country. 

The  evaporation  from  a  reservoir  surface  at  Baltimore, 
during  the  Summer  months,  was  assumed  by  Colonel 
Abert  to  be  to  the  quantity  of  rain  as  two  to  one. 

Dr.  Holyoke  assigns  the  annual  quantity  evaporated  at 
Salem,  Mass.,  at  fifty-six  inches  ;  and  Colonel  Abert  quotes 
several  authorities  at  Cambridge,  Mass.,  stating  the  quan- 
tity at  fifty-six  inches.  These  facts  are  given  by  Mr. 
Blodget,  and  also  the  table  below. 

QUANTITY    OF    WATER    EVAPORATED,    IN    INCHES,    VERTICAL    DEPTH. 

Jan.    Feb.    Mar.   Apr.    Uny.  June.   July.    Aug.    Sept.    Oet.    Nov.    Dec.  Year. 

°-88  ll04  1>7T  2l54  415  t54  4'20  SM  3'12  1>93  1'32  1'09  30'03 
Ogdensburg,N.Y.,lyr.  1.65  0.82  2.0T  1,63  7.10  6.74  T.79  5.41  7.40  3.95  8.66  1.15  49.87 
Syracuse,  N.  Y.,  1  year  0.67  1.48  2.24  3.42  7.81  7.60  9.08  6.85  5.33  3.02  1.33  1.86  50.20 

The  quantity  for  Whitehaven,  England,  is  reported  by 
J.  F.  Miller.  It  was  very  carefully  observed,  from  1843 
to  1848 — the  evaporation  being  from  a  copper  vessel,  pro- 
tected from  rain.  The  district  is  one  of  the  wettest  of 
England — the  mean  quantity  of  rain,  for  the  same  time, 
having  been  45.25  inches. 

This  shows  a  great  difference  in  the  capacity  of  the  air 


RAIN    AND   EVAPORATION.  63 

to  absorb  moisture  in  England  and  the  United  States ;  and 
as  evaporation  is  a  cooling  process,  there  is  greater  neces- 
sity for  under-draining  in  this  country  than  in  England, 
supposing  circumstances  in  other  respects  to  be  similar. 

Evaporation  takes  place  at  any  point  of  temperature 
from  32°,  or  lower,  to  212° — at  which  water  boils.  It  is 
increased  by  heat,  but  is  not  caused  solely  by  it — for  a 
north-west  wind  in  New-England  evaporates  water,  and 
dries  the  earth  more  rapidly  than  the  heat  alone  of  a  Sum- 
mer's day ;  and  when,  under  ordinary  circumstances,  eva- 
poration from  a  water-surface  is  slow,  it  becomes  quite 
active  when  brought  in  close  proximity  to  sulphuric  acid, 
or  other  vapor-absorbing  bodies. 

The  cold  which  follows  evaporation  is  caused  by  a  loss 
of  the  heat  which  is  required  for  evaporation,  and  which 
passes  off  with  the  vapor,  as  a  solution,  in  the  atmosphere ; 
and  as  heat  Iteaves  the  body  to  aid  evaporation,  it  is  evi- 
dent that  that  body  cannot  be  cooled  by  the  process,  below 
the  dew-point  at  which  evaporation  ceases.  The  popular 
notion  that  a  body  may  be  cooled  almost  to  the  freezing- 
point,  in  a  hot  Summer  day,  by  the  action  of  heat  alone, 
is,  then,  erroneous.  But  still,  the  amount  of  heat  which 
is  used  up  in  evaporating  stagnant  water  from  undrained 
land,  that  might  otherwise  go  towards  warming  the  land 
and  the  roots  of  crops,  is  a  very  serious  loss. 

The  difference  in  the  temperature  of  a  body,  resulting 
from  evaporation,  may  reach  25°  in  the  desert  interior  of 
the  American  continent ;  but,  in  the  Eastern  States,  it  is 
not  often  more  than  15°. 

The  temperature  of  evaporation  is  the  reading  of  a  wet- 
bulb-thermometer  (the  bulb  being  covered  with  moistened 
gauze)  exposed  to  the  natural  evaporation  ;  and  the  dif- 
ference between  that  reading  and  the  reading  of  a  dry- 
thermometer,  is  the  expression  of  the  cold  resulting  from 
evaporation. 


64:  FAEM   DRAINAGE. 

When  the  air  is  nearly  saturated,  the  temperature  c/f  the 
air  rarely  goes  above  74° ;  but,  if  so,  the  moisture  in  the 
air  prevents  the  passing  away  of  insensible  perspiration, 
and  the  joint  action  of  heat  and  humidity  exhausts  the 
vital  powers,  causing  sun-stroke,  as  it  is  called.  At  New 
York  city,  August  12th  to  14th,  1853,  the  wet-thermo- 
meter stood  at  80°  to  84° ;  the  air,  at  90°  to  94°.  The 
mortality,  from  this  joint  effect,  was  very  great — over  two 
hundred  persons  losing  their  lives  in  the  two  days,  in  that 
city. 

From  very  careful  observations,  made  by  Lorin  Blodget, 
in  1853,  at  Washington,  it  was  found  that  the  difference 
between  the  wet  and  dry  thermometer  was  18^°  at  4  P.  M., 
June  30th,  and  16°  at  2  P.M.  on  July  1st— the  tempera- 
ture of  the  air  being  98°  on  the  first  day,  and  95°  on  the 
second;  but  such  excesses  are  unusual. 

The  following  table  has  been  compiled  from  Mr. 
Blodget's  notice  of  the  peculiarities  of  the  Summer  ol 
1853: 

The  dates  are  such  as  were  selected  to  illustrate  the  ex- 
treme temperatures  of  the  month,  and  the  degrees  repre- 
sent the  differences  between  the  wet  and  dry  thermometer 
The  observations  were  made  at  3  P.  M. : 

Locality.                       Dates.  Differences. 
JUNE,  1858. 

Burlington,  Vt 14th  to  30th ranged  from        8°  to     17° 

Montreal 14th  to  30th "  6    to     17 

Poultney,  Iowa 10th  to  30th "  9    to     16 

Washington 20th  to  30th "  8.5    to     16 

Baltimore 13th  to  30th "  7.4    to  20.2 

Savannah 13th  to  30th  ___1  "  5.2    to  17.3 

Austin,  Texas 10th  to  30th "  4    to     24 

Clarkesville,  Term.     4th  to  30th "  10.3    to  20.5 

ArOTTST. 

Bloomfield.  N.  J.,.     9th  to  14th  ...  "  5  to  15 

Austin,  Texas 6th  to  1 2th  ...  "  0  to  19 

Philadelphia 10th  to  15th "  8  to  14 

Jacksonville,  Fla ..  10th  to  15th "  6  to  8 


RAIN    AND   EVAPORATION.  65 

Observations  by  Lieut.  Gillis,  at  Washington,  give 
mean  differences  between  wet  and  dry  thermometers,  from 
March,  1841,  to  June,  1842,  as  follows : 

Observations  at  3  P.  M.  : 

Jan.     Feb.     Mar.    Apr.    May.    June.  July.     Aug.     Sept.      Oct.      Nov.     Dec. 
8°.08  4°.40    6°.47  5°.37  7°.05  8°.03  8°.89  5°.29    5°. 63    4°.61   4°.77  2°.03 

A  mean  of  observations  for  twenty-five  years  at  the 
Eadcliffe  Observatory,  Oxford,  England,  gives  a  difference 
between  the  wet  and  dry  thermometer  equal  to  about  two- 
thirds  the  difference,  as  observed  by  Lieutenant  Gillis,  at 
Washington. 

On  the  12th  day  of  August,  1853,  in  Austin,  Texas,  the 
air  was  perfectly  saturated  at  a  temperature  of  76°,  which 
was  the  dew-point,  or  point  of  the  thermometer  at  which 
dew  began  to  form.  The  dew-point  varies  according  to 
the  temperature  and  the  humidity  of  the  atmosphere ;  it 
is  usually  a  few  degrees  lower  than  the  temperature  of 
evaporation — never  higher. 

From  observations  made  at  Girard  College,  by  Prof.  A. 
D.  Bache,  in  the  years  1840  to  1845,  we  find,  that  for 
April,  1844,  the  dew-point  ranged  from  4°  to  16°  lower 
than  the  temperature  of  the  air ;  in  May,  from  4°  to  14° 
lower ;  in  June,  from  6°  to  20°  lower ;  in  July,  from  4°  to 
17°;  in  August,  from  6°  to  15°  lower;  and  in  Septem- 
ber, from  6°  to  21°  lower.  The  dew-point  is,  then,  during 
the  important  months  of  vegetation,  within  about  20°  ol 
the  temperature  of  the  air.  The  temperature  of  the  dew- 
point,  as  observed  by  Prof.  Bache,  was  highest  in  August, 
1843,  being  66°,  and  lowest  in  January,  1844,  being  18°  ; 
in  July,  1844,  it  was  64°,  and  in  February,  1845,  it  was 
25°.  Its  hourly  changes  during  each  day  are  quite  marked, 
and  follow,  with  some  degree  of  regularity,  the  changes  in 
the  temperature  of  the  air ;  their  greatest  departure  from 
each  other  being  at  the  hottest  hour  of  the  day,  which  is 
two  or  three  hours  after  noon,  and  the  least  at  the  coldest 


66  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

hour  which  is  four  or  five  hours  after  midnight.  The 
average  temperature  of  the  dew-point  in  April,  May,  and 
June,  184:4:,  was,  at  midnight,  50^°,  air,  57°  ;  five  hours 
after  midnight,  dew-point,  49°,  air  54:°  ;  three  hours  after 
noon,  dew-point,  54:°,  air,  63J°.  The  average  temperature 
for  July,  August  and  September,  was,  at  midnight,  dew 
point,  58i°,  air,  65°  ;  five  hours  after  mid*  ight,  dew-point, 
58°,  air,  62°  ;  three  hours  after  noon,  dew  point,  60^°,  air, 
78°.  The  average  temperature  for  the  year  was,  at  mid- 
night, dew-point,  42°,  air,  48°  ;  five  hours  after  midnight, 
dew-point,  41°,  air,  46°  ;  three  hours  after  noon,  dew-point, 
442°,  air,  59°. 

The  relative  humidity  of  the  atmosphere,  or  the  amount 
of  vapor  held  in  suspension  in  the  air,  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  which  it  might  hold,  was,  in  the  year  1858,  as 
given  in  the  journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute,  for 

Philadelphia.          Somerset  Co. 

April 49  per  cent.  —  2  P.  M. 

May 59         "  72          " 

June 55         "  63  " 

July 50         "  61          " 

August 55         "  58          " 

September 50         "  57          " 

The  saturation  often  falls  to  30  per  cent.,  but  with  great 
variability.  Evaporation  goes  on  most  rapidly  when  the 
per  centage  of  saturation  is  lowest ;  and,  as  before  ob- 
served, the  cause  of  the  excess  of  evaporation  in  this 
country  over  that  of  England  is  the  excessive  humidity  of 
that  climate  and  the  dryness  of  this.  It  has  also  been  said 
that  there  is  greater  need  for  drainage  in  the  United  States 
on  this  account ;  and,  as  the  warmth  induced  by  draining 
is  somewhat,  in  its  eifect,  a  merchantable  product,  it  may 
be  well  to  consider  it  for  a  moment  in  that  light. 

First        The   drained  land   comes   into  condition   for 


BAIN    AND   EVAPORATION.  67 

working,  a  week  or  ten  days  earlier  in  the  Spring  than 
other  lands. 

Secondly  :  The  growth  of  the  crops  is  quickened  all 
through  the  Summer  by  an  increase  of  several  degrees  in 
the  temperature  of  the  soil. 

Thirdly :  The  injurious  effects  of  frost  are  kept  off 
several  days  later  in  the  Fall. 

Of  the  value  of  these  conditions,  the  farmer,  who  has  lost 
his  crops  for  lack  of  a  few  more  warm  days,  may  make 
his  own  estimates.  In  Roxbury,  Mr.  I.  P.  Rand  heats  up 
a  portion  of  his  land,  for  the  purpose  of  raising  early 
plants  for  the  market,  by  means  of  hot  water  carried  by 
iron  pipes  under  the  surface  of  the  ground.  In  this  man 
ner  he  heats  an  area  equal  to  100  feet  by  12  feet,  by  burn- 
ing about  one  ton  of  coal  a  month.  The  increase  of  tempera- 
ture which,  in  this  case,  is  caused  by  that  amount  of  coal, 
can,  in  the  absence  of  direct  measurement,  only  be  esti- 
mated ;  but  it,  probably,  will  average  about  30°,  day  and 
night,  throughout  the  month.  In  an  acre  the  area  is  36.4 
times  as  great  as  that  heated  by  one  ton  of  coal ;  the  cost 
being  in  direct  proportion  to  the  area,  36.4  tons  of  coal 
would  be  required  to  heat  an  acre  ;  which,  at  $6  per  ton, 
would  cost  $217.40.  To  heat  an  acre  through  10°,  would 
cost,  then,  $72.47.  It  may  be  of  interest  to  consider  how 
much  coal  would  be  required  to  evaporate  from  an  un- 
drained  field  that  amount  of  water  which  might  be  car- 
ried oft'  by  underdrains,  but  which,  without  them,  is  evap- 
orated from  the  surface.  It  may  be  taken  as  an  approx- 
imate estimate,  that  the  evaporation  from  the  surface 
of  an  undrained  retentive  field,  is  equal  to  two  inches 
vertical  depth  of  water  for  each  of  the  months  of  May, 
June,  July,  and  August;  which  is  equal  to  fifty-four  thou- 
sand three  hundred  and  five  gallons,  or  eight  hundred  and 
sixty-two  hogsheads  per  acre  for  each  month.  If  this  quan- 
tity of  water  were  evaporated  by  means  of  a  coal  fire, 


68  BARM   DRAINAGE. 

about  22f  tons  of  coal  would  be  consumed  which,  at  $6  a 
ton,  would  cost  $130.  The  cost  of  evaporating  the  amount 
of  water  which  would  pass  off  in  one  day  from  an  aera 
would  be  about  $4.53.  It  is  probable  that  about  halt  as 
much  water  would  be  evaporated  from  thorough-drained 
land,  though,  by  some  experiments,  the  proportion'  has 
been  made  greater — in  which  case  the  loss  of  heat  result  • 
ing  from  an  excess  of  moisture  evaporated  from  undrained 
retentive  land,  over  that  which  would  be  evaporated  from 
drained  land,  would  be  equal  to  that  gained  by  11-J  tons 
of  coal,  which  would  cost  $68  ;  and  this  for  each  acre,  in 
each  of  the  three  months.  At  whatever  temperature  a 
liquid  vaporizes,  it  absorbs  the  same  total  quantity  o/ 
heat. 

The  latent  heat  of  watery  vapor  at  212°  is  972°  ;  tha* 
is,  when  water  at  212°  is  converted  into  vapor  at  the  same- 
temperature,  the  amount  of  heat  expended  in  the  process 
is  972°.  This  heat  becomes  latent,  or  insensible  to  the 
thermometer.  The  heat  rendered  latent  by  converting 
ice  into  water  is  about  140°.  There  are  7.4805  gallons  in 
a  cubic  foot  of  water  which  weighs  62.38  Ibs." 

We  have  seen  that  a  sea  of  water,  more  than  three  feet 
deep  over  the  whole  face  of  the  land,  falls  annually  from 
the  clouds,  equal  to  4,000  tons  in  weight  to  every  acre. 
We  would  use  enough  of  this  water  to  dissolve  the  ele 
merits  of  fertility  in  the  soil,  and  fit  them  for  the  food  of 
plants.  We  would  retain  it  all  in  our  fields,  long  enough 
to  take  from  it  its  stores  of  fertilizing  substances,  brought 
from  reeking  marshes  and  steaming  cities  on  cloud-wings 
to  our  farms.  We  would,  after  taking  enough  of  its 
moisture  to  cool  the  parched  earth,  and  to  fit  the  soil  for 
germination  and  vegetable  growth,  discharge  the  surplus, 
which  must  otherwise  stagnate  in  the  subsoil,  by  rapid 
drainage  into  the  natural  streams  and  rivers. 

Evaporation  proceeds  more  rapidly  from  a  surface  of 


RAIN    AND   EVAPORATION.  69 

vrater,  than  from  a  surface  of  land,  unless  it  be  a  saturated 
surface.  It  proceeds  more  rapidly  in  the  sun  than  in  the 
shade,  and  it  proceeds  again  more  rapidly  in  warm  than 
in  cold  weather.  It  varies  much  with  the  culture  of  the 
field,  whether  in  grass,  or  tillage,  or  fallow,  and  with  its 
condition,  as  to  being  dry  or  wet,  and  with  its  formation, 
whether  level  or  hilly.  Yet,  with  all  these  variations, 
very  great  reliance  may  be  placed  upon  the  ascertained 
results  of  the  observations  already  at  our  command. 

We  have  seen  that  evaporation  from  a  water  surface  is, 
in  general,  greater  than  from  land,  and  here  we  may 
observe  one  of  those  grand  compensating  designs  of 
Providence  which  exist  through  all  nature. 

If  the  same  quantity  of  water  fell  upon  the  sea  and  the 
land,  and  the  evaporation  were  the  same  from  both,  then 
all  the  rivers  running  into  the  sea  would  soon  convey  to 
it  all  the  wrater,  and  the  sea  w^ould  be  full.  But  though 
nearly  as  much  water  falls  on  the  sea  as  on  the  land,  yet 
evaporation  is  much  greater  from  the  water  than  from 
land. 

About  three  feet  of  rain  falls  upon  the  water,  while  the 
evaporation  from  a  water  surface  far  exceeds  that  amount. 
In  the  neighborhood  of  Boston,  evaporation  from  water 
surface  is  said  to  be  56  inches  in  the  year,  and  in  the  State 
of  New  York,  about  50  inches  ;  while,  in  England,  it  is 
put  by  Mr.  Dalton  at  44.43  inches,  and,  by  others,  much 
lower. 

Again,  about  three  feet  of  water  annually  falls  upon 
the  land,  while  the  evaporation  from  the  land  is  but  little 
more  than  20  inches.  If  this  water  fell  upon  a  flat 
surface  of  soil,  with  an  impervious  subsoil  of  rock  or 
clay,  we  should  have  some  sixteen  inches  of  water  in  the 
course  of  the  year  more  than  evaporates  from  the  land. 
If  a  given  field  be  dish-shaped,  so  as  to  retain  it  all,  it 
must  become  a  pond,  and  so  remain,  except  in  Summer, 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


when  greater  evaporation  from  a  water  surface  mj,y 
reduce  it  to  a  swamp  or  marsh. 

"With  16  or  13  inches  more  water  falling  annually  on 
all  our  cultivated  fields  than  goes  off  by  evaporation,  is 
it  not  wise  to  inquire  by  what  process  of  Mature  or  art 
this  vast  surplus  shall  escape  ? 

Experiments  have  been  made  with  a  view  to  determine 
the  proportion  of  evaporation  and  filtration,  upon  well- 
drained  land,  in  different  months.  From  an  able  article 
in  the  N.  Y.  Agricultural  Society  for  1854,  by  George 
Geddes,  we  copy  the  following  statement  of  valuable 
.bservations  upon  these  points. 

It  will  be  observed  that,  in  the  different  observations 
collected  in  this  chapter,  results  are  somewhat  various. 
They  have  been  brought  together  for  comparison,  and 
will  be  found  sufficiently  uniform  for  all  practical  pur- 
poses in  the  matter  of  drainage. 

"  The  experiments  upon  evaporation  and  drainage,  made,  on  Mr. 
Dalton's  plan,  were  in  vessels  three  feet  deep,  filled  with  soil  just  in 
the  condition  to  secure  perfect  freedom  from  excess  of  water,  and  the 
drainage  was  determined  by  the  amount  of  water  that  passed  out  of 
the  tube  at  the  bottom.  These  experiments  have  been  most  perfectly 
made  in  England  by  Mr.  John  Dickinson.  The  following  table  exhibits 
the  mean  of  eight  years  : 


October  to  March. 

April  to  September. 

Total  of  each  year. 

TEAK. 

Kain. 

Filtra- 
tion. 

Per  cent 
filtered. 

Kain. 

Filtra- 
tion. 

Per  cent 
filtered. 

Eain. 

Filtra- 
tion. 

Per  cent 
filtered 

1836.. 

18.80 

15.55 

82.7 

12.20 

2.10 

17.3 

31.00 

17.65 

56.9 

1837.. 

11.30 

6.85 

60.6 

9.80 

0.10 

1.0 

21.10 

6.95 

32.9 

1838.. 

12.32 

8.45 

68.8 

10.81 

0.12 

1.2 

23.13 

8.57 

37.0 

1839.. 

13.87 

12.31 

88.2 

17.41 

2.60 

15.0 

31.28 

14.91 

47.6 

1840.. 

11.76 

8.19 

69.6 

9.68 

0.00 

0.0 

21.44 

8.19 

38.2 

1841.. 

16.84 

14.19 

84.2 

15.26 

0.00 

0.0 

32.10 

14.19 

44.2 

1842     114.28 

10.46 

73.2 

12.15 

1.30 

10.7 

26.43 

11.76 

44.4 

1843..!12.43 

7.11 

57.2 

14.04 

0.99 

7.1 

26.47 

8.10 

36.0 

i 

Mean  . 

13.95 

10.39 

74.5 

12.67 

0.90       7.1 

26.61 

11.29 

42.4 

BAIN   AND    EVAPORATION. 


tl  A  soil  that  holds  no  water  for  the  use  of  plants  below  six  inches, 
will  suffer  from  drouth  in  ten  days  in  June,  July,  or  August.  If  the 
soil  is  in  suitable  condition  to  hold  water  to  the  depth  of  three  feet,  it 
would  supply  sufficient  moisture  for  the  whole  months  of  June,  July, 
and  August. 

'•  M.  de  la  Hire  has  shown  that,  at  Paris,  a  vessel,  sixteen  inches  deep, 
filled  with  sand  and  loam,  discharged  water  through  the  pipe  at  the 
bottom  until  the  'herbs'  were  somewhat  grown,  when  the  discharge 
ceased,  and  the  rains  were  insufficient,  and  it  was  necessary  to  water 
them.  The  fall  of  water  at  Paris  is  stated,  in  this  account,  at  twenty 
inches  in  the  year,  which  is  less  than  the  average,  and  the  experiment 
must  have  been  made  in  a  very  dry  season ;  but  the  important  point 
proved  by  it  is,  that  the  plants,  when  grown  up,  draw  largely  from  the 
ground,  and  thereby  much  increase  the  evaporation  from  a  given  surface 
of  earth.  The  result  of  the  experiment  is  entirely  in  accordance  with 
what  would  have  been  expected  by  a  person  conversant  with  the  laws 
of  vegetation. 

"  The  mean  of  each  month  for  the  eight  years  is : 


MONTHS. 

Kain. 

Filtration. 

Per  cent 
filtered. 

Inches. 
.84 

Inches 

1  .30 

70.7 

February 

.79 

1.54 

78.4 

March       ..      ..  .. 

.61 

1.08 

66.6 

April 

.45 

0.30 

21.0 

May 

.85 

0.11 

5.8 

2.21 

0.04 

1.7 

July 

2.28 

0.04 

1.8 

August                  .                ....      .    _ 

2.42 

0.03 

1.4 

September 

2.64 

0.37 

13.9 

October  

2.82 

1.40 

49.5 

November  

3.83 

3.26 

84.9 

December 

1.64 

1.80 

110.0 

"  The  filtration  from  April  to  September  is  very  small — practically 
nothing;  but  during  those  months  we  have  12.67  inches  of  rain — that 
is,  we  have  two  inches  a  month  for  evaporation  besides  the  quantity  in 
the  earth  on  the  first  day  of  April.  From  October  to  March  we  have 
10.39  inches  filtered  out  of  13.95  inches,  the  whole  fall.  'Of  this 
Winter  portion  of  10.39,  we  must  allow  at  least  six  inches  for  floods 
running  away  at  the  time  of  the  rain,  and  then  we  have  only  4.3S 
indies  left  for  the  supply  of  river?  and  wells.'  (Breadmore.  p.  34.) 


72 


FARM    DRAINAGE. 


u  It  is  calculated  in  England  that  the  ordinary  Summer  run  of 
streams  does  not  exceed  ten  cubic  feet  per  minute  per  square  mile,  and 
that  the  average  for  the  whole  year,  due  to  springs  and  ordinary  rains, 
is  twenty  feet  per  minute  per  square  mile,  exclusive  of  floods — and 
assuming  no  very  wet  or  high  mountain  districts  (Breadmore,  p.  34) — • 
which  is  equal  to  about  four  inches  over  the  whole  surface.  If  we  add 
to  this  the  six  inches  that  are  supposed  to  run  off  in  freshets,  we  have 
ten  inches  discharged  in  the  course  of  the  year  by  the  streams.  The 
whole  filtration  was  11.29  inches — 10.39  in  the  Winter,  and. 90  in  the 
Summer.  The  remainder,  1.29  inches,  is  supposed  to  be  consumed  by 
wells  and  excessive  evaporation  from  marshes  and  pools,  from  which 
the  discharge  is  obstructed,  by  animals,  and  in  various  other  ways. 
These  calculations  were  made  from  experiments  running  through  eight 
years,  in  which  the  average  fail  of  water  was  only  26.61  inches  per 
annum.  When  the  results  derived  from  them  are  applied  to  our 
average  fall  of  35.28  inches,  we  have  for  the  water  that  constitutes  the 
Summer  flow  of  our  streams  13.25  cubic  feet  per  minute  per  mile  of 
the  country  drained,  and  for  the  average  annual  flow,  exclusive  of 
freshets,  26.50  cubic  feet  per  mile  per  minute.  That  is  to  say,  of  the 
35.28  inches  of  water  that  fall  in  the  course  of  the  year,  5.30  run 
away  in  the  streams  as  the  average  annual  flow,  7.95  run  away  in  the 
freshets,  and  20.47  evaporate  from  the  earth's  surface,  leaving  1 .56  for 
consumption  in  various  ways.  In  the  whole  year  the  drainage  is 
nearly  equal  to  one  cubic  foot  per  second  per  square  mile  (.976),  no 
allowance  being  made  for  the  1  56  inches  which  is  lost  as  before  stated. 
These  calculations  are  based  upon  English  experiments.  Mr.  McAlpine, 
late  State  engineer  and  surveyor,  in  making  his  calculations  for  sup- 
plying the  city  of  Albany  with  water  (page  22  of  his  Report  to  the 
Water  Commissioners),  takes  45  per  cent  of  the  fall  as  available  for 
the  use  of  the  city.  Mr.  Henry  Tracy,  in  his  Report  to  the  Canal 
Board  of  1849  (page  17),  gives  th-e  results  of  the  investigations  in  the 
valleys  of  Madison  Brook,  in  Madison  County,  and  of  Long  Pond,  near 
Bofton.  Mass..  as  follows: 


y  JAR. 

Name  of  valley. 

Fall  of  rain 
and  snow 
in    valley. 

Water  ran  off 
in 

inches. 

Evaporation 
from    surfV.ee 
of  ground. 

Eatio 
of 
drainage. 

18:55  
1837  
1838 

Madison   Brook. 
Long  Pond  
Do 

35.26 
26.65 
38.11 

15.83 
11.70 
16.62 

19.43 
14.95 

21.49 

0.449 
0.439 
0.436 

Mean 

0.441 

RAIN    AND   EVAPORATION-. 


73 


{  Madison  Brook  drains  6,000  acres,  and  Long  Pond  11,400  acres. 
Mr.  Tracy  makes  the  following  comment  on  this  table :  '  It  appears 
that  the  evaporation  from  the  surface  of  the  ground  in  the  valley  of 
Long  Pond  was  about  44  per  cent  more  in  1838  than  it  was  in  1837, 
while  the  ratio  of  the  drainage  differed  less  than  one  per  cent  the  same 
years.' 

'•  Dr.  Hale  states  the  evaporation  from  water-surface  at  Boston  to  be 
56  inches  in  a  year.  (Senate  Doc.,  No.  70,  for  1853.) 

"  The  following  table  contains  the  results  arrived  at  by  Mr.  Coffin, 
at  Ogdensburgh,  and  Mr.  Conkey.  at  Syracuse,  in  regard  to  the  eva- 
poration from  water-surface : 


MONTHS. 

COFFIN,  at  Ogdensburgh,  in  1838. 

CONKEY,  at  Syracuse,  in  1852. 

Rain. 

Evaporation. 

Eain. 

Evaporation. 

January 

2.36 
0.97 
1.18 
0.40 
4.81 
3.57 
1.88 
2.55 
1.01 
2.73 
2.07 
1.08 

1.652 
0.817 
2.067 
1.625 
7.100 
6.745 
7.788 
5.415 
7.400 
3.948 
3.659 
1.146 

3.673 
1.307 
3.234 
3.524 
4.491 
3.773 
2.887 
2.724 
2.774 
4.620 
4.354 
4.112 

0.665 
1.489 
2.239 
3.421 
7.309 
7.600 
9.079 
6.854 
5.334 
3.022 
1.325 
1.863 

February 

March 

April 

May 

June  

July  

August 

September  .... 
October 

November  
December  

TOTAL  

24.61 

49.362 

41.473 

50.200 

"  The  annual  fall  of  water  in  England,  is  stated,  by  Mr.  Dalton,  to  be 
32  inches.  In  this  State,  it  is  35.28  inches.  The  evaporation  from 
water-surface  in  England,  is  put,  by  Mr.  Dalton,  at  44.43  inches.  The 
fall  is  less,  and  the  evaporation  is  less,  in  England  than  here ;  and  the 
fall,  in  each  case,  bears  the  same  proportion  to 'the  evaporation,  very 
nearly ;  and  it  appears  that  the  experiments  made  on  the  two  sides  of 
the  ocean,  result  in  giving  very  nearly  the  same  per  centage  of  drain- 
age. In  England,  it  is  42.4  per  cent.  ]  in  this  State,  it  is  44.1.  In 
England,  the  experiments  were  made  on  a  limited  scale  compared  with 
ours ;  but  the  results  agree  so  well,  that  great  confidence  may  safely  be 
placed  in  them." 

In  reviewing  the  whole  subject  of  rain,  and  of  evapor- 


74  FAKM    DRAINAGE. 

ation  and  filtration,  we  seem  to  have  evidence  to  justify 
the  opinion,  that  with  considerable  more  rain  in  this 
country  than  in  England,  and  with  a  greater  evaporation, 
because  of  a  clearer  sky  and  greater  heat,  we  have  a 
larger  quantity  of  surplus  water  to  be  disposed  of  by 
drainage. 

The  occasion  for  thorough-drainage,  however,  is  greatel 
in  the  Northern  part  of  the  United  States  than  in  England, 
upon  land  of  the  same  character ;  because,  as  we  have 
already  seen,  rain  falls  far  more  regularly  there  than  here, 
and  never  in  such  quantities  in  a  single  day  ;  and  because 
there  the  land  is  open  to  be  worked  by  the  plough  nearly 
every  day  in  the  year,  while  here  for  several  months  our 
fields  are  locked  up  in  frost,  and  our  labor  for  the  Spring 
crowded  into  a  few  days.  There,  the  water  which  falls  in 
Winter  passes  into  the  soil,  and  is  drained  off  as  it  falls ; 
while  here,  the  snow  accumulates  to  a  great  depth,  and  in 
thawing  floods  the  land  at  once. 

Both  here  and  in  England,  much  of  the  land  requires 
no  under-draining,  as  it  has  already  a  subsoil  porous 
enough  to  allow  free  passage  for  all  the  surplus  water ; 
and  it  is  no  small  part  of  the  utility  of  understanding  the 
principles  of  drainage,  that  it  will  enable  farmers  to  dis- 
criminate— at  a  time  when  draining  is  somewhat  of  a 
fashionable  operation  with  amateurs — between  land  that 
does  and  land  that  does  not  require  BO  expensive  an 
operation. 


DRAINAGE   OF   HIGH   LANDS.  75 


CHAPTEE  IY. 

DRAINAGE  OF  HIGH   LANDS WHAT  LANDS  REQUIRE  DRAINAGE. 

What  is  High  Land  ? — Accidents  to  Crops  from  Water. — Do  Lands  need 
Drainage  in  America  ? — Springs. — Theory  of  Moisture,  with  Illustrations. 
— Water  of  Pressure. — Legal  Rights  as  to  Draining  our  Neighbor's  Wella 
and  Land. — What  Lands  require  Drainage  ?— Horace  Greeley's  Opinion. — 
Drainage  more  Necessary  in  America  than  in  England  ;  Indications  of  too 
much  Moisture. — Will  Drainage  Pay? 

BY  "  high  land,"  is  meant  land,  the  surface  of  which  is 
not  overflowed,  as  distinguished  from  swamps,  marshes, 
and  the  like  low  lands.  How  great  a  proportion  of  such 
lands  would  be  benetitted  by  draining,  it  is  impossible  to 
estimate. 

The  Committee  on  Draining,  in  their  Report  to  the  State 
Agricultural  Society  of  New  York,  in  1848,  assert  that, 
"  There  is  not  one  farm  out  of  every  seventy-five  in  this 
State,  but  needs  draining — yes,  much  draining — to  bring 
it  into  high  cultivation.  Nay,  we  may  venture  to  say, 
that  every  wheat-field  would  produce  a  larger  and  finer 
crop  if  properly  drained."  The  committee  further  say  : 
"  It  will  be  conceded,  that  no  farmer  ever  raised  a  good 
crop  of  grain  on  wet  ground,  or  on  a  field  where  pools  of 
water  become  masses  of  ice  in  the  Winter.  In  such 
cases,  the  grain  plants  are  generally  frozen  out  and  perish  ; 
or,  if  any  survive,  they  never  arrive  at  maturity,  nor  pro- 
duce a  well-developed  seed.  In  fact,  every  observing  far- 
mer knows  that  stagnant  water,  whether  on  the  surface  of 
his  soil,  or  within  reach  of  the  roots  of  his  plants,  always 
does  them  injury." 


76  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

The  late  Mr.  Delafield,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
agriculturists  of  New  York,  said  in  a  public  address : 

"  We  all  well  know  that  wheat  and  other  grains,  as  well  as  grasses, 
are  never  fully  developed,  and  never  produce  good  seed,  when  the  roots 
are  soaked  in  moisture.  No  man  ever  raised  good  wheat  from  a  wet  or 
moist  subsoil.  Now,  the  farms  of  this  country,  though  at  limes  during 
the  Summer  they  appear  dry.  and  crack  open  on  the  surface,  are  not,  in 
fact,  dry  farms,  for  reasons  already  named.  On  the  contrary,  for  nine 
months  out  of  twelve,  they  are  moist  or  wet;  and  we  need  no  better 
evidence  of  the  fact,  than  the  annual  freezing  out  of  the  plants,  and 
consequent  poverty  of  many  crops." 

If  we  listen  to  the  answers  of  farmers,  when  asked  as  to 
the  success  of  their  labors,  we  shall  be  surprised,  perhaps, 
to  observe  how  much  of  their  want  of  success  is  attributed 
to  accidents,  and  how  uniformly  these  accidents  result 
from  causes  which  thorough  draining  would  remove.  The 
wheat-crop  of  one  would  have  been  abundant,  had  it  not 
been  badly  frozen  out  in  the  Fall  ;  while  another  has 
lost  nearly  the  whole  of  his,  by  a  season  too  wet  for  ins 
land.  A  farmer  at  the  West  has  planted  his  corn  early, 
and  late  rains  have  rotted  the  seed  in  the  ground ;  while 
one  at  the  East  has  been  compelled,  by  the  same  rains,  to 
wait  so  long  before  planting,  that  the  season  has  been  too 
short.  Another  has  worked  his  clayey  farm  so  wet,  be- 
cause he  had  not  time  to  wait  for  it  to  dry,  that  it  could  not 
be  properly  tilled.  And  so  their  crops  have  wholly  or  par- 
tially failed,  and  all  because  of  too  much  cold  water  in  the 
soil.  It  would  seem,  by  the  remarks  of  those  who  till  the 
earth,  as  if  there  were  never  a  season  just  right — as  if  Provi  • 
dence  had  bidden  us  labor  for  bread,  and  yet  sent  down  the 
rains  of  heaven  so  plentifully  as  always  to  blight  our  har- 
vests. It  is  rare  that  we  do  not  have  a  most  remarkable 
season,  with  respect  to  moisture,  especially.  Our  pota- 
toes are  rotted  by  the  Summer  showers,  or  cut  off  by  a 
Summer  drought;  and  when,  as  in  the  season  of  1856,  ic 


DRAINAGE    OF   HIGH   LANDS.  77 

New  England,  they  are  neither  seriously  diseased  nor 
dried  up,  we  find  at  harvest-time  that  the  promise  has  be- 
lied the  fulfillment ;  that,  after  all  the  fine  show  above 
ground,  the  season  has  been  too  wet,  and  the  crop  is  light. 
We  frequently  hear  complaint  that  the  season  was  too  cold 
for  Indian  corn,  and  that  the  ears  did  not  fill ;  or  that  a 
sharp  drought,  following  a  wet  Spring,  has  cut  short  the 
crop.  We  hear  no  man  say,  that  he  lacked  skill  to  culti- 
vate his  crop.  Seldom  does  a  farmer  attribute  his  failure 
to  the  poverty  of  his  soil.  He  has  planted  and  cultivated 
in  such  a  way,  that,  in  a  favorable  season,  he  would  have 
reaped  a  fair  reward  for  his  toil ;  but  the  season  has  been 
too  wet  or  too  dry ;  and,  with  full  faith  that  farming  will 
pay  in  the  long  run,  he  resolves  to  plant  the  same  land  in 
the  same  manner,  hoping  in  future  for  better  luck. 

Too  much  cold  water  is  at  the  bottom  of  most  of  these 
complaints  of  unpropitious  seasons,  as  well  as  of  most  of 
our  soils  ;  and  it  is  in  our  power  to  remove  the  cause  of 
these  complaints  and  of  our  want  of  success. 

"  The  fault,  dear  Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars, 
But  in  ourselves." 

We  must  underdrain  all  the  land  we  cultivate,  that 
Nature  has  not  already  underdrained,  and  we  shall  cease 
complaints  of  the  seasons.  The  advice  of  Cromwell  to  his 
soldiers  :  "  Trust  God,  and  keep  your  powder  dry,"  affords 
a  good  lesson  of  faith  and  works  to  the  farmer.  We  shall 
seldom  have  a  season,  upon  properly  drained  land,  that  is 
too  wet,  or  too  cold,  or  even  too  dry ;  for  thorough  drain- 
ing is  almost  as  sure  a  remedy  for  a  drought,  as  for  a 
flood. 

Do  lands  need  underdraining  in  America  f  It  is  a 
common  error  to  suppose  that,  because  the  sun  shines 
more  brightly  upon  this  country  than  upon  England,  and 
because  almost  every  Summer  brings  such  a  drought  here 
as  is  unknown  there,  her  system  of  thorough  drainage  can 


78  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

have  no  place  in  agriculture  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic. 
It  is  true  that  we  have  a  clearer  sky  and  a  drier  climate 
than  are  experienced  in  England;  but  it  is  also  true  that 
although  we  have  a  far  less  number  of  showers  and  of 
rainy  days,  we  have  a  greater  quantity  of  rain  in  the 
year. 

The  necessity  of  drainage,  however,  does  not  depend  sc 
much  upon  the  quantity  of  water  which  falls  or  flows  upon 
land,  nor  upon  the  power  of  the  sun  to  carry  it  off  by 
evaporation,  as  upon  the  character  of  t?te  subsoil.  The 
vast  quantity  of  water  which  Nature  pours  upon  every 
acre  of  soil  annually,  were  it  all  to  be  removed  by  e  vapor  - 
ation  alone,  would  render  the  whole  country  barren  ;  but 
Nature  herself  has  kindly  done  the  work  of  draining  upon 
a  large  proportion  of  our  land,  so  that  only  a  healthful 
proportion  of  the  water  which  falls  on  the  earth,  passes  off 
at  the  surface  by  the  influence  of  the  sun. 

If  the  subsoil  is  of  sand  or  gravel,  or  of  other  porous 
earth,  that  portion  of  the  water  not  evaporated,  passes  off 
below  by  natural  drainage.  If  the  subsoil  be  of  clay,  rock, 
or  other  impervious  substances,  the  downward  course  of 
flie  water  is  checked,  and  it  remains  stagnant,  or  bursts 
out  upon  the  surface  in  the  form  of  springs. 

As  the  primary  object  of  drainage  is  to  remove  surplus 
crater,  it  may  be  well  to  consider  with  some  care 

THE    SOURCES    OF   MOISTURE. 

Springs. — These  are,  as  has  been  suggested,  merely  the 
water  of  rain  and  snow,  impeded  in  its  downward  percola- 
tion, and  collected  and  poured  forth  in  a  perennial  flow 
at  a  lower  level. 

The  water  which  faZls  in  the  form  of  rain  and  snow  upon 
the  soil  of  the  whole  territory  of  the  United  States,  east 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  each  year,  is  sufficient  to  cover 
it  to  the  depth  of  more  than  3  feet.  It  comes  upon  the 


DRAINAGE   OF   HIGH   LANDS.  79 

earth,  not  daily  in  gentle  dews  to  water  the  plants,  but 
at  long,  unequal  intervals,  often  in  storms,  tempests,  and 
showers,  pouring  out,  sometimes,  in  a  single  day,  more 
than  usually  falls  in  a  whole  month. 

What  becomes  of  all  this  moisture,  is  an  inquiry  espe- 
cially interesting  to  the  agriculturist,  upon  whose  fruitful 
fields  this  flood  of  water  annually  descends,  and  whose 
labor  in  seed-time  would  be  destroyed  by  a  single  Summer 
shower,  were  not  Nature  more  thoughtful  than  he,  of  his 
welfare.  Of  the  water  which  thus  falls  upon  cultivated 
fields,  a  part  runs  away  into  the  streams,  either  upon  the 
surface,  or  by  percolation  through  the  soil ;  a  part  is  taken 
up  into  the  air  by  evaporation,  while  a  very  small  pro- 
portion enters  into  the  constitution  of  vegetation.  The 
proportion  which  passes  off  by  percolation  varies  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  of  the  soil  in  the  locality  where  it  falls. 

Usually,  we  find  the  crust  of  the  earth  in  our  cultivated 
fields,  in  strata,  or  layers:  first,  a  surface-soil  of  a  few 
inches  of  a  loamy  nature,  in  which  clay  or  sand  pre- 
dominates ;  and  then,  it  may  be,  a  layer  of  sand  or  gravel, 
freely  admitting  the  passage  of  water ;  and,  perhaps,  next, 
and  within  two  or  three  feet  of  the  surface,  a  stratum  of 
clay,  or  of  sand  or  gravel  cemented  with  some  oxyd  of 
iron,  through  which  water  passes  very  slowly,  or  not  at  all. 
These  strata  are  sometimes  regular,  extending  at  an  equal 
depth  over  large  tracts,  and  having  a  uniform  dip,  or  in- 
clination. Oftener,  however,  in  hilly  regions  especially, 
they  are  quite  irregular — the  impervious  stratum  fre- 
quently having  depressions  of  greater  or  less  extent,  and 
holding  water,  like  a  bowl.  Not  unfrequently,  as  we  cut 
a  ditch  upon  a  declivity,  we  find  that  the  dip  of  the  strata 
below  has  no  correspondence  with  the  visible  surface  of 
the  field,  but  that  the  different  strata  lie  nearly  level,  or 
are  much  broken,  while  the  surface  has  a  regular  inclina- 
tion. 


80  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

Underlying  all  soils,  at  greater  01  less  depth,  is  found 
some  bed  of  rock,  or  clay,  impervious  to  water,  usually  at 
but  few  feet  below  the  surface — the  descending  water 
meeting  with  obstacles  to  its  regular  descent.  The  ten- 
dency of  the  rain-water  which  falls  upon  the  earth,  is 
to  sink  directly  downward  by  gravitation.  Turned  aside, 
however,  by  the  many  obstacles  referred  to,  it  often 
passes  obliquely,  or  almost  horizontally,  through  the  soil. 
The  drop  which  falls  upon  the  hill-top  sinks,  perhaps,  a  few 
inches,  meets  with  a  bed  of  clay,  glides  along  upon  it  for 
many  days,  and  is  at  last  borne  out  to  be  drunk  up  by  the 
sun  on  some  far-off  slope ;  another,  falling  upon  the  sand- 
plain,  sinks  at  once  to  the  "  water-line,"  or  line  of  level 
water,  which  rests  on  clay  beneath,  and,  slowly  creeping 
along,  helps  to  form  a  swamp  or  bog  in  the  valley. 

Sometimes,  the  rain  which  falls  upon  the  high  land  is 
collected  together  by  fissures  in  the  rocks,  or  by  seams  or 
ruptures  in  the  impervious  strata  below  the  surface,  and 
finds  vent  in  a  gushing  spring  on  the  hill-side. 

We  feel  confident  that  no  better  illustration  of  the 
theory  of  springs,  as  connected  with  our  subject,  can  be 
found,  than  that  of  Mr.  Girdwood,  in  the  Cyclopedia  of 
Agriculture — a  work  from  which  we  quote  the  more 
liberally,  because  it  is  very  expensive  and  rare  in  America: 

"  When  rain  falls  on  a  tract  of  country,  part  of  it  flows  over  the  sur- 
face, and  makes  its  escape  by  the  numerous  natural  and  artificial 
courses  which  may  exist,  while  another  portion  is  absorbed  by  the  soil 
and  the  porous  strata  which  lie  under  it. 

"  Let  the  following  diagram  represent  such  a  tract  of  country,  and  let 

D 


Fig.  5. 
the  dark  portions  represent  clay  or  other  impervious  strata  while  the 


DRAINAGE    OF   HIGH   LANDS.  81 

lighter  portions  represent  layers  of  gravel,  sand,  or  chalk,  permitting  a 
free  passage  to  water. 

"  When  rain  falls  in  such  a  district,  after  sinking  through  the  surface- 
layer  (represented  in  the  diagram  by  a  narrow  band),  it  reaches  th& 
stratified  layers  beneath.  Through  these  it  still  further  sinks,  if  they 
are  porous,  until  it  reaches  some  impervious  stratum,  which  arrests  its 
directly-downward  course,  and  compels  it  to  find  its  way  along  its  upper 
surface.  Thus,  the  rain  which  falls  on  the  space  represented  between  B 
and  D.  is  compelled,  by  the  impervious  strata,  to  flow  towards  C.  Here 
it  is  at  once  absorbed,  but  is  again  immediately  arrested  by  the  imper 
vious  layer  E :  it  is,  therefore,  compelled  to  pass  through  the  porous 
stratum  C,  along  the  surface  of  p]  to  A,  where  it  pours  forth  in  a  foun- 
tain, or  forms  a  rnorass  or  swamp,  proportionate  in  size  or  extent  to  the 
tract  of  country  between  B  and  D,  or  the  quantity  of  rain  which  falls 
upon  it.  In  such  a  case  as  is  here  represented,  it  will  be  obvious  that 
the  spring  may  often  be  at  a  great  distance  from  the  district  from  which 
it  derives  its  supplies  ]  and  this  accounts  for  the  fact,  that  drainage- 
works  on  a  large  scale  sometimes  materially  lessen  the  supply  of  water 
at  places  remote  from  the  scene  of  operations. 

4i  In  the  instance  given  above,  the  water  forming  the  spring  is  repre- 
sented as  gaining  access  to  the  porous  stratum,  at  a  point  where  it  crops 
out  from  beneath  an  impervious  one,  and  as  passing  along  to  its  point 
of  discharge  at  a  considerable  depth,  and  under  several  layers  of  various 
characters.  Sometimes,  in  an  undulating  country,  large  tracts  may 
rest  immediately  upon  some  highly-porous  stratum — as  from  B  to  C,  in 
the  following  diagram — rendering  the  necessity  for  draining  less  ap- 
parent ;  while  the  country  from  A  to  B,  and  from  C  to  D,  may  be  full  of 


Fig.  6. 

springs  and  marshes — arising,  partly,  from  the  rain  itself,  which  falls  in 
these  latter  districts,  being  unable  to  find  a  way  of  escape,  and  partlv 
from  the  natural  drainage  of  the  more  porous  soils  adjoining  being  dis- 
charged upon  it. 

"  Again :  the  rocks  lying  under  the  surface  are  sometimes  so  full  of 
fissures,  that,  although  they  themselves  are   impervious  to  water,  yet, 
4* 


02  FARM    DRAINAGE, 

so  completely  do  these  fissures  carry  off  rain,  that,  in  some  parts  ui  the 
county  of  Durham,  they  render  the  sinking  of  wells  useless,  and  make  it 
necessary  for  the  farmers  to  drive  their  cattle  many  miles  for  water.  It 
sometimes  happens  that  these  fissures,  or  cracks,  penetrate  to  enormous 
depths,  and  are  of  great  width,  and  filled  with  sand  or  clay.  These  are 
termed  faults  by  miners;  and  some,  which  we  lately  examined,  at  dis- 
tances of  from  three  to  four  hundred  yards  from  the  surface,  were  from 
five  to  fifteen  yards  in  width.  These  faults,  when  of  clay,  are  generally 
the  cause  of  springs  appearing  at  the  surface :  they  arrest  the  progress 
of  the  water  in  some  of  the  porous  strata,  and  compel  it  to  find  an  exit, 
by  passing  to  the  surface  between  the  clay  and  the  faces  of  the  ruptured 
strata.  When  the  fault  is  of  sand  or  gravel,  the  opposite  effect  takes 
place,  if  it  communicates  with  any  porous  stratum ;  and  water,  which 
may  have  been  flowing  over  the  surface,  on  reaching  it,  is  at  once  ab- 
sorbed. In  the  following 


Fig.  7. 

diagram,  let  us  suppose  that  B  represents  such  a  clay-fault  as  has  been 
described,  and  that  A  represents  a  sandy  one,  and  that  C  and  D  repre- 
sent porous  strata  charged  with  water.  On  the  water  reaching  the  fault 
at  B,  it  will  be  compelled  to  find  its  way  to  the  surface — there  forming 
a  spring,  and  rendering  the  retentive  soil,  from  B  to  A,  wet ;  but,  as 
soon  as  it  reaches  the  sandy-fault  at  A,  it  is  immediately  absorbed,  and 
again  reaches  the  porous  strata,  along  which  it  had  traveled  before 
being  forced  to  the  surface  at  B.  It  will  be  observed,  that  the  strata  at 
the  points  of  dislocation  are  not  represented  as  in  a  line  with  the 
portions  from  which  they  have  been  dissevered.  This  is  termed  the  up- 
throw of  the  fault,  as  at  B  j  and  the  downthrow,  as  at  A.  For  the  sake 
of  the  illustration,  the  displacement  is  here  shown  as  very  slight  ;  but, 
in  some  cases,  these  elevations  and  depressions  of  the  strata  extend  to 
many  hundreds  of  feet — as,  for  instance,  at  the  mines  of  the  British 
Iron  Company,  at  Cefn-Mawre,  in  North  Wales,  where  the  downthrow 
of  the  fault  is  360  feet. 

"  Sometimes  the  strata  are  disposed  in  the  form  of  a  basin.     In  this 
case,  the  water  percolating  through  the  more  elevated  ground — neai 


DRAINAGE   OF   HIGH    LANDS. 


83 


what  may  be  called  the  rim— collects  in  the  lower  parts  of  the  strata 
towards  the  centre,  there  forcing  its  way  to  the  surface,  if  the  upper 
impervious  beds  be  thin ;  or,  if  otherwise,  remaining  a  concealed  reser- 
voir, ready  to  yield  its  supplies  to  the  shaft  or  boring-rod  of  the  well- 
sinker,  and  sometimes  forming  a  living  fountain  capable  of  rising  many 
feet  above  the  surface.  It  is  in  this  way  that  what  are  called  Artesian 
wells  are  formed.  The  following  diagram  represents  such  a  disposition 
of  the  strata  as  has  just  been  referred  to.  The  rain  which  falls  on  the 


Fig.  8. 

tracts  of  country  at  A  and  B,  gradually  percolates  towards  the  centre  of 
the  basin,  where  it  may  be  made  to  give  rise  to  an  Artesian  well,  as  at 
C.  by  boring  through  the  superincumbent  mass  of  clay  ;  or  it  may  force 
itself  to  the  surface  through  the  thinner  part  of  the  layer  of  clay,  as  at 
D— there  forming  a  spring,  or  swamp. 

"  Again  :  the  higher  parts  of  hilly  ground  are  sometimes  composed  of 
very  porous  and  absorbent  strata,  while  the  lower  portions  are  more 
impervious— the  soil  and  subsoil  being  of  a  very  stiff  and  retentive 
description.  In  this  case,  the  water  collected  by  the  porous  layers  is 
prevented  from  finding  a  ready  exit,  when  it  reaches  the  impervious 
layers,  by  the  stiff  surface-soil.  The  water  is  by  this  means  dammed 
up  in  some  measure,  and  acquires  a  considerable  degree  of  pressure; 
and,  forcing  itself  to  the  day  at  various  places,  it  forms  those  extensive 
"  weeping';-banks  which  have  such  an  injurious  effect  upon  many  of 
our  mountain-pastures.  This  was  the  form  of  spring,  or  swamp,  to  the 
removal  of  which  Elkington  principally  turned  his  attention;  and  the 
following  diagram,  taken  from  a  description  of  his  system  of  draining. 
Will  explain  the  stratification  and  springs  referred  to,  more  clearly. 


Fig.  9. 


84  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

"  In  some  districts,  where  clay  forms  the  staple  of  the  soil,  a  bed  of 
sand  or  gravel,  completely  saturated  with  water,  occurs  at  the  depth  of 
a  few  feet  from  the  surface,  following  all  the  undulations  of  the 
country,  and  maintaining  its  position,  in  relation  to  the  surface,  over  con- 
siderable tracts,  here  and  there  pouring  forth  its  waters  in  a  spring,  or 
denoting  its  proximity,  by  the  subaquatic  nature  of  the  herbage.  Such  a 
configuration  is  represented  in  the  following  diagram,  where  A  repre- 
sents the  surface-soil  •  B,  the  impervious  subsoil  of  clay  ;  C,  the  bed  of 
sandy-clay  or  gravel ;  and  D,  the  lower  bed  of  clay,  resting  upon  the 
rocky  strata  beneath. 


Fig.  10. 

"Springs  sometimes  communicate  with  lakes  or  pools,  at  higher  levels. 
In  such  cases,  the  quantity  of  water  discharged  is  generally  so  great,  as 
to  form  at  once  a  brook  or  stream  of  some  magnitude.  These,  there- 
fore,  hardly  come  under  the  ordinary  cognizance  of  the  land-drainer, 
and  are,  therefore,  here  merely  referred  to." 

THE   WATER   OF   PRESSURE. 

Water  that  issues  from  the  land,  either  constantly, 
periodically,  or  even  intermittently,  may,  perhaps,  be 
properly  termed  a  spring.  But  there  is  often  much  water 
in  the  soil  which  did  not  fall  in  rain  upon  that  particular 
field,  and  which  does  not  issue  from  it  in  any  defined 
stream,  hut  which  is  slowly  passing  through  it  by  perco- 
lation from  a  higher  source,  to  ooze  out  into  some  stream, 
or  to  pass  off  by  evaporation ;  or,  perhaps,  farther  on,  to 
fall  into  crevices  in  the  soil,  and  eventually  form  springs. 
As  we  find  it  in  our  field,  it  is  neither  rain-water,  which 
has  there  fallen,  nor  spring-water,  in  any  sense.  It  has 
been  appropriately  termed  the  water  of  pressure,  to  dis- 
distinguish  it  from  both  rain  and  spring- water ;  and  the 
recognition  of  this  term  will  certainly  be  found  conve- 


DRAINAGE   OF   HIGH   LANDS.  85 

nient  to  all  who  are  engaged  in  the  discussion  of 
drainage. 

The  distinction  is  important  in  a  legal  point  of  view,  as 
relating  to  the  right  of  the  land-owner  to  divert  the 
sources  of  supply  to  mill-streams,  or  to  adjacent  lower 
lands.  It  often  happens  that  an  owner  of  land  on  a 
slope  may  desire  to  drain  his  field,  while  the  adjacent 
owner  below,  may  not  only  refuse  to  join  in  the  drainage, 
but  may  believe  that  he  derives  an  advantage  from  the 
surface-washing  or  the  percolation  from  his  higher 
neighbor.  He  may  believe  that,  by  deep  drainage 
above,  his  land  will  be  dried  up  and  rendered  worthless  ; 
or,  he  may  desire  to  collect  the  water  which  thus  perco- 
lates, into  his  land,  and  use  it  for  irrigation,  or  for  a 
water-ram,  or  for  the  supply  of  his  barn-yard.  May  the 
upper  owner  legally  proceed  with  the  drainage  of  his  own 
land,  if  he  thus  interfere  with  the  interests  of  the  man 
below  ? 

Again  :  wherever  drains  have  been  opened,  we  already 
hear  complaints  of  their  effects  upon  wells.  In  our  good 
town  of  Exeter,  there  seems  to  be  a  general  impression 
on  one  street,  that  the  drainage  of  a  swamp,  formerly 
owned  by  the  author,  has  drawn  down  the  wells  on  that 
street,  situated  many  rods  distant  from  the  drains.  Those 
wells  are  upon  a  sandy  plain,  with  underlying  clay,  and 
the  drains  are  cut  down  upon  the  clay,  and  into  it,  and 
may  possibly  draw  off  the  water  a  foot  or  two  lower 
through  the  whole  village — if  we  can  regard  the  water 
line  running  through  it  as  the  surface  of  a  pond,  and  the 
swamp  as  a  dam  across  its  outlet. 

The  rights  of  land-owners,  as  to  running  water  over 
their  premises,  have  been  fruitful  of  litigation,  but  are 
now  well  defined.  '  In  general,  in  the  language  of  Judge 
Story, 

"  Every  proprietor  upon  each  bank  of  'a  river,  is  entitled  to  the  land 


86  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

covered  with  water  in  front  of  his  bank  to  the  middle  thread  of  the 
stream,  &c.  In  virtue  of  this  ownership,  he  has  a  right  to  the  use  of 
the  water  flowing  over  it  in  its  natural  current,  without  diminution  or 
obstruction.  The  consequence  of  this  principle  is.  that  no  proprietoi 
has  a  right  to  use  the  water  to  the  prejudice  of  another.  It  is  wholly 
immaterial  whether  the  party  be  a  proprietor  above  or  below,  in  the 
course  of  the  river,  the  right  being  common  to  all  the  proprietors  on 
the  river.  No  one  has  a  right  to  diminish  the  quantity  which  will, 
according  to  the  natural  current  flow  to  the  proprietor  below,  or  to 
throw  it  back  upon  a  proprietor  above." 

Chief  Justice  Richardson,  of  New  Hampshire,  thus 
briefly  states  the  same  position  : 

"  In  general,  every  man  has  ft  right  to  the  use  o  the  water  flowing 
in  a  stream  through  his  land,  and  if  any  one  divert  the  water  from  its 
natural  channel,  or  throw  it  back;  so  as  to  deprive  him  of  the  use  of  it. 
the  law  will  give  him  redress.  But  one  man  may  acquire,  by  grant,  a 
right  to  throw  the  water  back  upon  the  land  of  another,  and  long 
usage  may  be  evidence  of  such  a  grant.  It  is.  however,  well  settled 
that  a  man  acquires  no  such  right  by  merely  being  the  first  to  make 
use  of  the  water.-'' 

We  are  not  aware  that  it  has  ever  been  held  by  any 
court  of  law,  or  -even  asserted,  that  a  land-owner  may  not 
intercept  the  percolating  water  in  his  soil  for  any  pur- 
pose and  at  his  pleasure  ;  nor  have  we  in  mind  any  case 
in  which  the  draining  out  of  water  from  a  well,  by  drain- 
age for  agricultural  purposes,  has  subjected  the  owner  of 
the  land  to  compensation. 

It  is  believed  that  a  land-owner  has  the  right  to  follow 
the  rules  of  good  husbandry  in  the  drainage  of  his  land, 
BO  far  as  the  water  of  pressure  is  concerned,  without 
responsibility  for  remote  consequences  to  adjacent  owners, 
to  the  owners  of  distant  wells  or  springs  that  may  be 
affected,  or  to  mill-owners. 

In  considering  the  effect  of  drainage  on  streams  and 
rivers,  it  appears  that  the  results  of  such  operations,  so 
far  as  they  can  be  appreciated,  are,  to  lessen  the  value  of 
water  powers,  by  increasing  the  flow  of  water  in  times  of 


WHAT   LANDS    REQUIRE   DRAINAGE  ?  87 

freshets,  and  lessening  it  in  times  of  drought.  It  is  sup- 
posed in  this  country,  that  clearing  the  land  of  timber  has 
sensibly  affected  the  value  of  "  mill  privileges,"  by  in- 
creasing evaporation,  and  diminishing  the  streams.  No 
mill-owner  has  been  hardy  enough  to  contend  that  a  land- 
owner may  not  legally  cut  down  his  own  timber,  whatever 
the  effect  on  the  streams.  So,  we  trust,  no  court  will  ever 
be  found,  which  will  restrict  the  land-owner  in  the  highest 
culture  of  his  soil,  because  his  drainage  may  affect  the 
capacity  of  a  mill-stream  to  turn  the  water-wheels. 

To  return  from  our  digression.  It  is  necessary,  in  order 
to  a  correct  apprehension  of  the  work  which  our  drains 
have  to  perform,  to  form  a  correct  opinion  as  to  how 
much  of  the  surplus  moisture  in  our  field  is  due  to  each  of 
the  three  causes  to  which  we  have  referred — to  wit,  rain- 
water, which  falls  upon  it ;  springs,  which  burst  up  from 
below  ;  and  water  of  pressure,  stagnant  in,  or  slowly  per- 
colating through  it.  The  rain-tables  will  give  us  informa- 
tion as  to  the  first ;  but  as  to  the  others,  we  must  form 
our  opinion  from  the  structure  of  the  earth  around  us,  and 
observation  tipon  the  field  itself,  by  its  natural  phenomena 
and  by  opening  test-holes  and  experimental. ditches.  Hav- 
ing gained  accurate  knowledge  of  the  sources  of  mois- 
ture, we  may  then  be  able  to  form  a  correct  opinion  whe- 
ther our  land  requires  drainage,  and  of  the  aid  which 
Nature  requires  to  carry  off  the  surplus  water. 

WHAT   LANDS    REQUIRE   DRAINAGE  ? 

The  more  one  studies  the  subject  of  drainage,  the  less 
inclined  will  he  be  to  deal  in  general  statements.  "  Do 
you  think  it  is  profitable  to  underdrain  land  ?"  is  a  ques- 
tion a  thousand  times  asked,  and  yet  is  a  question 
that  admits  of  no  direct  general  answer.  Is  it  profitable 
to  fence  land  ?  is  it  profitable  to  plow  land?  are  questions 
of  much  the  same  character.  The  answers  tc  them  all  de- 


88  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

pend  npon  circumstances.  There  is  land  that  may  be 
profitably  drained,  and  fenced,  and  plowed,  and  there  is  a 
great  deal  that  had  better  be  let  alone.  Whether  drain- 
ing is  profitable  or  not,  depends  on  the  value  and  character 
of  the  land  in  question,  as  well  as  on  its  condition  as  to 
water.  Where  good  land  is  worth  one  hundred  dollars  an 
acre,  it  might  be  profitably  drained  ;  when,  if  the  same 
land  were  worth  but  the  Government  price  of  $1.25  an 
acre,  it  might  be  better  to  make  a  new  purchase  in  the 
neighborhood,  than  to  expend  ten  times  its  value  on  a 
tract  that  cannot  be  worth  the  cost  of  the  operation. 
Drainage  is  an  expensive  operation,  requiring  much  labor 
and  capital,  and  not  to  be  thought  of  in  a  pioneer  settle- 
ment by  individual  emigrants.  It  comes  after  clearing, 
after  the  building  of  log-houses  and  mills,  and  school-houses, 
and  churches,  and  roads,  when  capital  and  labor  are  abun- 
dant, and  when  the  good  lands,  nature-drained,  have  been 
all  taken  up. 

And,  again,  whether  drainage  is  profitable,  depends  not 
only  on  the  value,  but  on  the  character  of  the  soil  as  to 
productiveness  when  drained.  There  is  much  land  that 
would  be  improved  by  drainage,  that  cannot  be  profitably 
drained.  It  would  improve  almost  any  land  in  ISTew  Eng- 
land to  apply  to  it  a  hundred  loads  of  stable  manure  to 
the  acre  ;  but  whether  such  application  would  be  profit- 
able, must  depend  upon  the  returns  to  be  derived  from 
it.  Horace  Greeley,  who  has  his  perceptions  of  common 
affairs,  and  especially  of  all  that  relates  to  progress,  wide 
awake,  said,  in  an  address  at  Peekskill,  K.  Y.  : 

"  My  deliberate  judgment  is.  that  all  lands  which  are  worth  plow- 
ing, which  is  not  the  case  with  all  lands  that  are  plowed,  would  be  im- 
proved by  draining  ;  but  I  know  that  our  farmers  are  neither  able  nor 
ready  to  drain  to  that  extent,  nor  do  I  insist  that  it  would  pay  while 
land  is  so  cheap,  and  labor  and  tile  so  dear  as  at  present.  Ultimately, 
I  believe,  we  shall  tile-drain  nearly  all  our  level,  or  moderately  sloping 
lands,  that  are  worth  cultivation." 


WHAT    LANDS    REQUIRE    DRAINAGE  ?  89 

Whether  land  would  be  improved  by  drainage,  is  one 
question,  and  whether  the  operation  will^a?/,  is  quite  ano- 
ther. The  question  whether  it  will  pay,  depends  on  the 
value  of  the  land  before  drainage,  the  cost  of  the  opera- 
tion, and  the  value  of  the  land  when  completed.  And 
the  cost  of  the  operation  includes  always,  not  only  the 
money  and  labor  expended  in  it,  but  also  the  loss  to  other 
land  of  the  owner,  by  diverting  from  it  the  capital  which 
would  otherwise  be  applied  to  it.  Where  labor  and  capi- 
tal are  limited  so  closely  as  they  are  in  all  our  new  States, 
it  is  a  question  not  only  how  can  they  be  profitably  ap- 
plied, but  how  can  they  be  most  profitably  applied.  A 
proprietor,  who  has  money  to  loan  at  six  per  cent,  interest, 
may  well  invest  it  in  draining  his  land  ;  when  a  working 
man,  who  is  paying  twelve  per  cent,  interest  for  all  the 
capital  he  employs,  might  ruin  himself  by  making  the 
same  improvement. 

DO    ALL    LANDS    REQUIRE   DRAINAGE? 

Our  opinion  is,  that  a  great  deal  of  land  does  not  in 
any  sense  require  drainage,  and  we  should  differ  with  Mr. 
Greeley,  in  the  opinion  that  all  lands  worth  ploughing, 
would  be  improved  by  drainage.  Nature  has  herself  thor- 
oughly drained  a  large  proportion  of  the  soil.  There  is  a 
great  deal  of  finely-cultivated  land  in  England,  renting 
at  from  five  to  ten  dollars  per  acre,  that  is  thought  there 
to  require  no  drainage. 

In  a  published  table  of  estimates  by  .Mr.  Denton,  inade 
in  1855,  it  is  supposed  that  Great  Britain,  including  Eng- 
land, Scotland,  and  Wales,  contain  43,958,000  acres  of 
land,  cultivated  and  capable  of  cultivation ;  of  which  he 
sets  down  as  "  wet  land,"  or  land  requiring  drainage, 
22,890,004  acres,  or  about  one  half  the  whole  quantity. 
His  estimate  is,  that  only  about  1,365,000  acres  had  then 
been  permanently  drained,  and  that  it  would  cost  about 


90  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

107  millions  of  pounds  to  complete  the  operation,  esti* 
mating  the  cost  at  about  twenty  shillings,  or  live  dollars 
per  acre. 

These  estimates  are  valuable  in  various  views  of  our 
subject.  They  answer  with  some  definiteness  the  question 
so  often  asked,  whether  all  lands  require  drainage,  and 
they  tend  to  correct  the  impression,  which  is  prevalent  in 
this  country,  that  there  is  something  in  the  climate  of 
Great  Britain  that  makes  drainage  there  essential  to  good 
cultivation  on  any  land.  The  fact  is  not  so.  There,  as  in 
America,  it  depends  upon  the  condition  and  character 
of  the  soil,  more  than  upon  the  quantity  of  rain,  or  any 
condition  of  climate,  whether  drainage  is  required  or  not. 
Generally,  it  will  be  found  on  investigation,  that  so  far 
as  climate,  including  of  course  the  quantity  and  regularity 
of  the  rain-fall,  is  concerned,  drainage  is  more  necessary 
in  America  than  in  Great  Britain — the  quantity  of  rain 
being  in  general  greater  in  America,  and  far  less  regular 
in  its  fall.  This  subject,  however,  will  receive  a  more 
careful  consideration  in  another  place. 

If  in  America,  as  in  Great  Britain,  one  half  the  cul- 
tivable land  require  drainage,  or  even  if  but  a  tenth  of 
that  half  require  it,  the  subject  is  of  vast  importance,  and 
it  is  no  less  important  for  us  to  apprehend  clearly  what 
part  of  our  land  does  not  require  this  expenditure,  than 
to  learn  how  to  treat  properly  that  which  does  require  it. 

To  resume  the  inquiry,  what  lands  require  drainage  ?  it 
may  be  answered — 

ALL  LANDS  OVERFLOWED  IN  SUMMER  REQUIRE  DRAINAGE. 

Lands  overflowed  by  the  regular  tides  of  the  ocean 
require  drainage,  whether  they  lie  upon  the  sea-shore,  or 
upon  rivers  or  bays.  But  th'.s  drainage  involves  embank- 
ments, and  a  peculiar  mode  of  procedure,  of  which  it  13 
not  now  proposed  to  treat. 


WHAT   LANDS   REQUIRE   DRAINAGE?-  91 

Again,  all  lands  overflowed  by  Summer  freshets,  aa 
upon  rivers  arid  smaller  stream?,  require  drainage.  These, 
too,  usually  require  embankments,  and  excavations  of 
channels  or  outlets,  not  within  the  usual  scope  of  what  is 
termed  thorough  drainage.  For  a  further  answer  to  the 
question — what  lands  require  drainage  ?  the  reader  is  re- 
ferred to  the  chapters  which  treat  of  the  effect  of  drainage 
upon  the  soil. 

SWAMPS    AND   BOGS   REQUIRE   DRAINAGE. 

No  argument  is  necessary  to  convince  rational  men  that 
the  very  extensive  tracts  of  land,  which  are  usually  known 
as  swamps  and  bogs,  must,  in  some  way,  be  relieved  of 
their  surplus  water,  before  they  can  be  rendered  fit  for 
cultivation.  The  treatment  of  this  class  of  wet  lands  is 
so  different  from  that  applied  to  what  we  term  upland, 
that  it  will  be  found  more  convenient  to  pass  the  subject 
by  with  this  allusion,  at  present,  and  consider  it  more 
systematically  under  a  separate  head. 

ALL   HIGH    LANDS    THAT    CONTAIN    TOO    MUCH   WATER    AT    ANT 
SEASON,    REQUIRE    DRAINAGE. 

Draining  has  been  defined,  "  The  art  of  rendering  land 
not  only  so  free  of  moisture  as  that  no  superfluous  water 
shall  remain  in  it,  but  that  no  water  shall  remain  in  it  so 
long  as  to  injure,  or  even  retard  the  healthy  growth  ol 
plants  required  for  the  use  of  man  and  beast." 

Some  plants  grow  in  water.  Some,  even  spring  from 
the  bottom  of  ponds,  and  have  no  other  life  than  such  a 
position  affords.  But  most  plants,  useful  to  man,  are 
drowned  by  being  overflowed  even  for  a  short  time,  and 
are  injured  by  any  stagnant  water  about  their  roots.  Why 
this  is  so,  it  is  not  easy  to  explain.  Most  of  our  know- 
ledge on  these  points,  is  derived  from  observation.  We 
know  that  fishes  live  in  water,  and  if  we  would  propagate 


92  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

them,  we  prepare  ponds  and  streams  for  the  purpose.  Our 
domestic  anrnals  live  on  land,  and  we  do  not  put  them 
into  fish-ponds  to  pasture.  There  are  useful  plants  which 
thrive  best  in  water.  Such  is  the  cranberry,  notwithstand- 
ing all  that  has  been  said  of  its  cultivation  on  upland. 
And  there  are  domestic  fowls,  such  as  ducks  and  geese, 
that  require  pools  of  water ;  but  we  do  not  hence  infer 
that  our  hens  and  chickens  would  be  better  for  daily  im- 
mersion. All  lands,  then,  require  drainage,  that  contain 
too  much  water,  at  any  season  for  the  intended  crops. 

This  will  be  found  to  be  an  important  element  in  our 
rule.  Land  may  require  drainage  for  Indian  corn,  that 
may  not  require  it  for  grass.  Most  of  the  cultivated 
grasses  are  improved  in  quality,  and  not  lessened  in  quan- 
tity, by  the  removal  of  stagnant  water  in  Summer ;  but 
there  are  reasons  for  drainage  for  hoed  crops,  which  do 
not  apply  to  our  mowing  fields.  In  !N"ew  England,  we 
have  for  a  few  weeks  a  perfect  race  with  Nature,  to  get 
our  seeds  into  the  ground  before  it  is  too  late.  Drained 
land  may  be  plowed  and  planted  several  weeks  earlier 
than  land  undrained,  and  this  additional  time  for  prepara- 
tion is  of  great  value  to  the  farmer.  Much  of  this  same 
land  would  be,  by  the  first  of  June,  by  the  time  the 
ordinary  planting  season  is  past,  sufficiently  drained  by 
Nature,  and  a  grass  crop  upon  it  would  be,  perhaps,  not 
at  all  benefi tted  by  thorough-drainage ;  so  that  it  is  often 
an  important  consideration  with  reference  to  this  opera- 
tion, whether  a  given  portion  of  our  farm  may  not  be  most 
profitably  kept  in  permanent  grass,  and  maintained  in  fer- 
tility by  top-dressing,  or  by  occasional  plowing  and  re- 
eeeding  in  Autumn.  It  is  certainly  convenient  to  have 
all  our  fields  adapted  to  our  usual  rotation,  and  it  is  for 
each  man  to  balance  for  himself  this  convenience  against 
the  cost  of  drainage  in  each  particular  case. 

What  particular  crops  are  most  injured  b\   stagnant 


WHAT   LAtfDS   REQUIRE   DRAINAGE?  93 

water  in  the  soil,  or  by  the  too  tardy  percolation  of  rain- 
water, may  be  determined  by  observation.  How  stagnant 
water  injures  plants,  is  not,  as  has  been  suggested,  easily 
understood  in  all  its  relations.  It  doubtless  retards  the 
decomposition  of  the  substances  which  supply  their  nutri- 
ment, and  it  reduces  the  temperature  of  the  soil.  It  has 
been  suggested,  that  it  prevents  or  checks  perspiration  and 
introsusception,  and  it  excludes  the  air  which  is  essen- 
tial to  the  vegetation  of  most  plants.  Whatever  the 
theory,  the  fact  is  acknowledged,  that  stagnant  water  in 
as  well  as  on  the  soil,  impedes  the  growth  of  all  our  valu- 
able crops,  and  that  drainage  soon  cures  the  evil,  by  re- 
moving the  effect  with  its  cause.  And  the  remedy  seems 
to  be  almost  instantaneous ;  for,  on  most  upland,  it  is  found 
that  by  the  removal  of  stagnant  water,  the  soil  is  in  a 
single  season  rendered  fit  for  the  growth  of  cultivated 
crops.  In  low  meadows,  composed  of  peat  and  swamp 
mud,  in  many  cases,  exposure  to  the  air  for  a  year  or  two 
after  drainage,  is  often  found  to  enhance  the  fertility  of 
the  soil,  which  contains,  frequently,  acids  which  need  cor- 
rection. 

INDICATIONS    OF   TOO   MUCH   MOISTURE. 

It  has  already  been  suggested,  that  motives  of  con- 
venience may  induce  us  to  drain  our  lands — that  we  may 
have  a  longer  season  in  which  to  work  them ;  and  that 
there  may  be  cases  where  the  crop  would  flourish  if 
plan!  ed  at  precisely  the  right  time,  where  yet  we  cannot 
well,  without  drainage,  seasonably  prepare  for  the  crop. 
Generally,  however,  lands  too  wet  seasonably  to  plant, 
will  give  indications,  throughout  the  season,  of  hidden 
water  producing  its  ill  effects. 

If  the  land  be  in  grass,  we  find  that  aquatic  plants,  like 
rushes  or  water  grasses,  spring  up  with  the  seeds  we  have 
sown,  and,  in  a  few  years,  have  possession  of  the  field, 
and  we  are  soon  compelled  to  plow  up  the  sod,  and  lay 


94:  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

it  again  to  grass.  If  it  be  in  wheat  or  other  grain,  we 
Bee  the  field  spotted  and  uneven ;  here  a  portion  on  some 
slight  elevation,  tall  and  dark  colored,  and  healthy ;  and 
there  a  little  depression,  sparsely  covered  with  a  low 
and  sickly  growth.  An  American  traveling  in  England 
in  the  growing  season,  will  always  be  struck  with  the 
/perfect  evenness  of  the  fields  of  grain  upon  the  well- 
drained  soil.  Journeying  through  a  considerable  portion 
of  England  and  Wales  with  intelligent  English  farmers, 
we  were  struck  with  their  nice  perception  on  this  point. 

The  slightest  variation  in  the  color  of  the  wheat  in  the 
same  or  different  fields,  attracted  their  instant  attention. 

"  That  field  is  not  well-drained ;  the  corn  is  too  light- 
colored."  "  There  is  cold  water  at  the  bottom  there ;  the 
cornv  cannot  grow  ;"  were  the  constant  criticisms,  as  we 
passed  across  the  country.  Inequalities  that,  in  our  more 
careless  cultivation,  we  should  pass  by  without  observa- 
tion, were  at  once  explained  by  reference  to  the  condition 
of  the  land  as  to  water. 

The  drill-sowing  of  wheat,  and  the  careful  weeding  it 
with  the  horse-hoe  and  by  hand,  are  additional  reasons 
why  the  English  fields  should  present  a  uniform  appear- 
ance, and  why  any  inequalities  should  be  fairly  referable 
to  the  condition  of  the  soil. 

Upon  a  crop  of  Indian  corn,  the  cold  water  lurking 
below  soon  places  its  unmistakable  mark.  The  blade 
comes  up  yellow  and  feeble.  It  takes  courage  in  a  few 
days  of  bright  sunshine  in  June,  and  tries  to  look  hopeful, 
but  a  shower  or  an  east  wind  again  checks  it.  It  had 
already  more  trouble  than  it  could  bear,  and  turns  pale 
again.  Tropical  July  and  August  induce  it  to  throw  up  a 
feeble  stalk,  and  to  attempt  to  spindle  and  silk,  like  other 
corn.  It  goes  through  all  the  forms  of  vegetation,  and 
yields  at  last  a  single  nubbin  for  the  pig.  Indian  corn 


WHAT   LANDS    REQUIRE   DRAINAGE?  95 

must  have  land  that  is  dry  in  Summer,  or  it  cannot  repay 
the  labor  of  cultivation. 

Careful  attention  to  the  subject  will  soon  teach  any 
farmer  what  parts  of  his  land  are  injured  by  too  much 
water;  and  having  determined  that,  the  next  question 
should  be,  whether  the  improvement  of  it  by  drainage 
will  justify  the  cost  of  the  operation. 

WILL   IT   PAY? 

Drainage  is  a  permanent  investment.  It  is  not  an 
operation  like  the  application  of  manure,  which  we  should 
expect  to  see  returned  in  the  form  of  salable  crops  in  one 
or  two  years,  or  ten  at  most,  nor  like  the  labor  applied  in 
cultivating  an  annual  crop.  The  question  is  not  whether 
drainage  will  pay  in  one  or  two  years,  but  will  it  pay  in 
the  long  run  ?  Will  it,  when  completed,  return  to  the 
farmer  a  fair  rate  of  interest  for  the  money  expended? 
Will  it  be  more  profitable,  on  the  whole,  than  an  invest- 
ment in  bank  or  railway  shares,  or  the  purchase  of  West- 
ern lands  ?  Or,  to  put  the  question  in  the  form  in  which 
an  English  land-owner  would  put  it,  will  the  rent  of  the 
land  improved  by  drainage,  be  permanently  increased 
enough  to  pay  a  fair  interest  on  the  cost  of  the  improve- 
ment ? 

Let  us  bring  out  this  idea  clearly  to  the  American 
farmer  by  a  familiar  illustration.  Your  field  is  worth  to 
you  now  one  hundred  dollars  an  acre.  It  pays  you,  in  a 
series  of  years,  through  a  rotation  of  planting,  sowing, 
and  grass,  a  nett  profit  of  six  dollars  an  acre,  above  all 
expenses  of  cultivation  and  care. 

Suppose,  now,  it  will  cost  one-third  of  a  hundred  dol- 
lars an  acre  to  drain  it,  and  you  expend  on  each  three 
acres  one  hundred  dollars,  what  must  the  increase  of  your 
crops  be,  to  make  this  a  fair  investment  ?  Had  you  ex- 
pended the  hundred  dollars  in  labor,  to  produce  a  crop  of 


96  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

cabbages,  you  ought  to  get  your  money  all  back,  with  a 
fair  profit,  the  first  year.  Had  you  expended  it  in  guano 
or  other  special  manures,  whose  beneficial  properties  are 
exhausted  in  some  two  or  three  years,  your  expenditure 
should  be  returned  within  that  period.  But  the  improve- 
ment by  drainage  is  permanent  ;  it  is  done  for  all  time  to 
come.  If,  therefore,  your  drained  land  shall  pay  you  a 
fair  rate  of  interest  on  the  cost  of  drainage,  it  is  a  good 
investment.  Six  per  cent,  is  the  most  common  rate  of  in- 
terest, and  if,  therefore,  each  three  acres  of  your  drained 
land  shall  pay  you  an  increased  annual  income  of  six  dol- 
lars, your  money  is  fairly  invested.  This  is  at  the  rate  of 
two  dollars  an  acre.  How  much  increase  of  crop  will  pay 
this  two  dollars  ?  In  the  common  rotation  of  Indian  corn, 
potatoes,  oats,  wheat,  or  barley,  and  grass,  two  or  three 
bushels  of  corn,  five  or  six  bushels  of  potatoes,  as  many 
bushels  of  oats,  a  bushel  or  two  of  wheat,  two  or  three 
bushels  of  barley,  will  pay  the  two  dollars.  Who,  that 
has  been  kept  back  in  his  Spring's  work  by  the  wetness  of 
his  land,  or  has  been  compelled  to  replant  because  his 
seed  has  rotted  in  the  ground,  or  has  experienced  any  of 
the  troubles  incident  to  cold  wet  seasons,  will  not  admit 
at  once,  that  any  land  which  Nature  has  not  herself 
thoroughly  drained,  will,  in  this  view,  pay  for  such  im- 
provement ? 

But  far  more  than  this  is  claimed  for  drainage.  In 
England,  where  such  operations  have  been  reduced  to  a 
system,  careful  estimates  have  been  made,  not  only  of  the 
cost  of  drainage,  but  of  the  increase  of  crops  by  reason 
of  the  operation. 

In  answer  to  questions  proposed  by  a  Board  of  Commis- 
sioners, in  1848,  to  persons  of  the  highest  reputation  for 
knowledge  on  this  point,  the  increase  of  crops  by  drainage 
was  variously  stated,  but  in  no  case  at  less  than  a  paying 
rate.  One  gentleman  says  :  "  A  sixth  of  increase  in 


WHAT   LANDS   REQUIRE   DRAINAGE?  97 

produce  of  grain  crops  may  be  taken  as  the  very  lowest 
estimate,  and,  in  actual  result,  it  is  seldom  less  than  one- 
fourth.  In  very  many  cases,  after  some  following  culti- 
vation, the  produce  is  doubled,  whilst  the  expense  of 
working  the  land  is  much  lessened."  Another  says  :  "  In 
many  instances,  a  return  of  fully  25  per  cent,  on  the  ex- 
penditure is  realized,  and  in  some  even  more."  A  third 
remarks,  "  My  experience  and  observation  have  chiefly 
been  in  heavy  clay  soils,  where  the  result  of  drainage  is 
eminently  beneficial,  and  where  I  should  estimate  the  in- 
creased crop  at  six  to  ten  bushels  (wheat)  per  statute 
acre." 

These  are  estimates  made  upon  lands  that  had  already 
been  under  cultivation.  In  addition  to  such  lands  as  are 
merely  rendered  less  productive  by  surplus  water,  we 
have,  even  on  our  hard  New  England  farms — on  side  hills, 
where  springs  burst  out,  or  at  the  foot  of  declivities,  where 
the  land  is  flat,  or  in  runs,  which  receive  the  natural 
drainage  of  higher  lands — many  places  which  are  abso- 
lutely unflt  for  cultivation,  and  worse  than  useless,  because 
they  separate  those  parts  of  the  farm  which  can  be  culti- 
vated. If,  of  these  wet  portions,  we  make  by  draining, 
good,  warm,  arable  land,  it  is  not  a  mere  question  of  per 
centage  or  profit  ;  it  is  simply  the  question  whether  the 
land,  when  drained,  is  worth  more  than  the  cost  of  drain- 
age. If  it  be,  how  much  more  satisfactory,  and  how  much 
more  profitable  it  is,  to  expend  money  in  thus  reclaiming 
the  waste  places  of  our  farms,  and  so  uniting  the  detached 
fields  into  a  compact,  systematic  whole,  than  to  follow  the 
natural  bent  of  American  minds,  and  "  annex  "  our  neigh- 
bor's fields  by  purchasing. 

Any  number  of  instances  could  be  given  of  the  in- 
creased value  of  lands  in  England  by  drainage,  but  they 
are  of  little  practical  value.  The  facts,  that  the  Govern- 
ment has  made  large  loans  in  aid  of  the  process,  that  pri- 


98  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

vate  drainage  companies  are  executing  extensive  works 
all  over  the  kingdom,  and  that  large  land-holders  are 
draining  at  their  own  cost,  are  conclusive  evidence  to  any 
rational  mind,  that  drainage  in  Great  Britain,  at  least,  well 
repays  the  cost  of  the  operation. 

In  another  chapter  may  be  found  accurate  statements  of 
American  farmers  of  their  drainage  operations,  in  different 
States,  from  which  the  reader  will  be  able  to  form  a  cor- 
rect opinion,  whether  draining  in  this  country  is  likely  to 
prove  a  profitable  operation. 


METHODS   OF  DRAINAGE  99 


CHAPTEE   V. 

VARIOUS   METHODS   OF   DRAINAGE.  • 

Open  Ditches.  —Slope  of  Banks. — Brush  Drains. — Ridge  and  Furrow. — Plug- 
Draining. — Mole-Draining. — Mole-Plow. — Wedge  and  Shoulder  Drains. — 
Larch  Tubes. — Drains  of  Fence  Rails,  and  Poles. — Peat  Tiles. — Stone 
Drains  Injured  by  Moles.—  Downing's  Giraffes. — Illustrations  of  Various 
Kinds  of  Stone  Drains.  • 

OPEN    DITCHES. 

THE  most  obvious  mode  of  getting  rid  of  surface-water 
is,  to  cut  a  ditch  on  the  surface  to  a  lower  place,  arid  let  it 
run.  So,  if  the  only  object  were  to  drain  a  piece  of  land 
merely  for  a  temporary  purpose — as,  where  land  is  too 
wet  to  ditch  properly  in  the  first  instance,  and  it  is  neces- 
sary to  draw  off  part  of  the  surplus  water  before  systematic 
operations  are  commenced — an  open  ditch  is,  perhaps,  the 
cheapest  method  to  be  adopted. 

Again  :  where  land  to  be  drained  is  part  of  a  large 
sloping  tract,  and  water  runs  down,  at  certain  seasons,  in 
large  quantities  upon  the  surface,  an  open  catch-water- 
ditch  may  be  absolutely  necessary.  This  condition  of  cir- 
cumstances is  very  common  in  mountainous  districts,  where 
the  rain  which  falls  on  the  hills  flows  down,  either  on 
the  visible  surface  or  on  the  rock-formation  under  the 
soil,  and  breaks  out  at  the  foot,  causing  swamps,  often  high 
up  on  the  hill-sides.  Often,  too,  in  clay  districts,  where 
sand  or  loam  two  or  three  feet  deep  rests  on  tough  clay, 
we  see  broad  sloping  tracts,  which  form  our  best  grass- 
fields 

If  we  are  attempting  to  drain  the  lower  part  of  such  a 


100  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

• 

slope,  we  shall  find  that  the  water  from  the  upper  part 
flows  down  in  large  quantities  upon  us,  and  an  open  ditch 
may  be  most  economical  as  a  header,  to  cut  off  the  down- 
flowing  water;  though,  in  most  cases,  a  covered  drain  may 
be  as  efficient. 

At  the  outlets,  too,  of  our  tile  or  stone  drains,  when  we 
come  down  nearly  to  the  level  of  the  stream  which  re- 
ceives our  drainage-water,  we  find  it  convenient,  often, 
and  indeed  necessary,  to  use  open  ditches — perhaps  only 
a  foot  or  two  deep — to  carry  off  the  water  discharged 
These  ditches  are  of  great  importance,  and  should  be 
finished  with  care,  because,  if  they  become  obstructed, 
they  cause  bafck- water  in  the  drains,  and  may  ruin  the 
whole  work. 

Open  drains  are  thus  essential  auxiliaries  to  the  best 
plans  of  thorough  drainage ;  and,  whatever  opinion  may 
be  entertained  of  their  economy,  many  farmers  are  so 
situated  that  they  feel  obliged  to  resort  to  them  for  the 
present,  or  abandon  all  idea  of  draining  their  wet  lands. 
We  will,  therefore,  give  some  hints  as  to  the  best  manner 
of  constructing  open  drains ;  and  then  suggest,  in  the  form 
of  objections  to  them,  such  considerations  as  shall  lead  the 
proprietor  who  adopts  this  mode  to  consider  carefully  his 
plan  of  operations  in  the  outset,  with  a  view  to  obviate, 
as  much  as  possible,  the  manifest  embarrassments  occa- 
sioned by  them. 

As  to  the  location  of  drains  in  swamps  and  peculiarly 
wet  places,  directions  may  be  found  in  another  chapter. 
"We  here  propose  only  to  treat  of  the  mode  of  forming 
open  drains,  after  their  location  is  fixed. 

The  worst  of  all  drains  is  an  open  ditch,  of  equal  width 
from  top  to  bottom.  It  cannot  stand  a  single  season,  in 
any  climate  or  soil,  without  being  seriously  impaired  by 
the  frosts  or  the  heavy  rains.  All  open  drains  should  be 
gjoping ;  and  \i  is  ascertained,  by  experiment,  what  is  the 


METHODS    OF   DR-vINAGE.  101 

best,  or,  as  it  is  sometimes  expressed,  the  natural  slope,  on 
different  kinds  of  soil.  If  earth  be  tipped  from  a  cart 
down  a  bank,  and  be  left  exposed  to  the  action  of  the 
weather,  it  will  rest,  and  finally  remain,  at  a  regular  angle 
or  inclination,  varying  from  21°  to  55°  with  the  horizon, 
according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  The  natural  slope  of 
common  earth  is  found  to  be  about  33°  42' ;  and  this  is 
the  inclination  usually  adopted  by  railroad  engineers  for 
their  embankments. 

If  the  banks  of  the  open  ditch  are  thus  sloped,  they  will 
have  the  least  possible  tendency  to  wash  away,  or  break 
down  by  frost. 

Again  :  where  open  ditches  are  adopted  in  mowing 
fields,  they  may,  if  not  very  deep,  be  sloped  still  lowei 
than  the  natural  slope,  and  seeded  down  to  the  bottom ; 
so  that  no  land  will  be  lost,  and  so  that  teams  may  pass 
across  them. 

This  amounts,  in  fact,  to  the  old  ridge  and  furrow  sys- 
tem, which  was  almost  universal  in  England  before  tiles 
were  used,  and  is  sometimes  seen  practiced  in  this  country. 
The  land,  by  that  system,  is  back-furrowed  in  narrow 
lands,  till  it  is  laid  up  into  beds,  sloping  from  the  tops,  01 
backs,  to  the  furrows  which  constitute  the  drains.  This 
mode  of  culture  is  very  ancient,  and  is  probably  referred 
to  in  the  language  of  the  Psalmist,  in  the  Scriptures :  "Thou 
waterest  the  ridges  thereof  abundantly,  thou  settlest  the 
furrows  thereof,  thou  makest  it  soft  with  showers." 

The  objections  to  open  ditches,  as  compared  with  under- 
drains,  may  be  briefly  stated  thus  : 

1.  They  are  expensive.  The  excavation  of  a  sloping  drain 
is  much  greater  than  that  of  an  upright  drain.  An  open 
drain  must  have  a  width  of  one  or  two  feet  at  the  bottom, 
to  receive  the  earth  that  always  must,  to  some  extent, 
wash  into  it.  An  open  drain  requires  to  be  cleaned  out 
•>nce  a  year,  to  keep  it  in  good  order.  There  is  a  large 


102  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

quantity  of  earth  from  an  open  drain  to  be  disposed  of, 
either  by  spreading  or  hauling  away.  Thus,  a  drain  of 
this  kind  is  costly  at  the  outset,  and  requires  constant 
labor  and  care  to  preserve  it  in  working  condition. 

2.  They  are  not  permanent.     A  properly  laid  under- 
drain  will  last  half  a  century  or  more,  but  an  open  drain, 
especially  if  deep,  has  a  constant  tendency  to  fill  up. 
Besides,  the    action   of  frost  and  water  and  vegetation 
has    a   continual    operation    to    obstruct    open   ditches. 
Rushes  and  water-grasses  spring  up  luxuriantly  in  the 
wet   and  slimy  bottom,  and   often,  in   a   single  season, 
retard  the  flow  of   water,  so  that   it  will   stand   many 
inches  deep  where  the  fall  is  slight.     The  slightest  acci- 
dent, as  the  treading  of  cattle,  the  track  of  a  loaded  cart, 
the  burrowing  of  animals,  dams  up  the  water  and  lessens 
the  effect  of  the  drain.     Hence,  we  so  often  see  meadows 
which  have  been  drained  in  this  way  going  back,  in  a  few 
years,  into -wild  grass  and  rushes. 

3.  They  obstruct    good   husbandry.      In    the   chaptei 
upon  the  effects  of  drainage  on  the  condition  of  the  soil, 
we  suggest,  in  detail,  the  hindrances  which  open  ditchee 
present  to  the  convenient  cultivation  of   the  land,  andr 
especially,  how  they  obstruct  the  farmer  in  his  plowing, 
his  mowing,  his  raking,  and  the  general  laying  out  of  his 
land  for  convenient  culture. 

4.  They  occupy  too  much  land.     If   a  ditch  have  an 
upright  bank,  it  is  so  soft  that  cattle  will  not  step  within 
several  feet  of  it  in  plowing,  and  thus  a  strip  is  lost  for 
culture,  or  must  be  broken  up  by  hand.     If,  indeed,  we 
can  get  the  plow  near  it,  there  being  no  land  to  rest 
against,  the  last  furrow  cannot  be  turned  from  the  ditch, 
and  if  it  be  turned  into  it,  must  be  thrown  out  by  hand. 
If  the  banks  be  sloped  to  the  bottom,  and  the  land  be 
thus  laid  into  beds  or  ridges,  the  appearance  of  the  field 
may,  indeed,  be  improved,  but  there  is  still  a  loss  of  soil ; 


METHODS   OF  DRAINAGE.  103 

for  the  soil  is  all  removed  from  the  furrow,  which,  will  al- 
ways produce  rushes  and  water-grass,  and  carried  to  the 
ridge,  where  it  doubles  the  depth  of  the  natural  soil. 
Thus,  instead  of  a  field  of  uniform  condition,  as  to  moist- 
ure and  temperature  and  fertility,  we  have  strips  of  wet, 
cold,  and  poor  soil,  alternating  with  dry,  warm,  and  rich 
soil,  establishing  a  sort  of  gridiron  system,  neither  beau- 
tiful, convenient,  nor  profitable. 

5.  The  manure  washes  off  and  is  lost.  The  three  or 
four  feet  of  water  which  the  clouds  annually  give  us  in  rain 
and  snow,  must  either  go  off  by  evaporation,  or  by  filtra- 
tion, or  run  off  upon  the  surface.  Under  the  title  of  Rain 
and  Evaporation,  it  will  be  seen  that  not  much  more  than 
half  this  quantity  goes  off  by  evaporation,  leaving  a  vast 
quantity  to  pass  off  through  or  upon  the  soil.  If  lands 
are  ridged  up,  the  manure  and  finer  portions  of  the  soil 
are,  to  a  great  extent,  washed  away  into  the  open  ditches 
and  lost.  Of  the  water  which  filters  downwards,  a  large 
portion  enters  open  ditches  near  the  surface,  before  the 
fertilizing  elements  have  been  strained  out ;  whereas,  in 
covered  drains  of  proper  depth,  the  water  is  filtered 
through  a  mass  of  soil  sufficiently  deep  to  take  from  it 
the  fertilizing  substances,  and  discharge  it,  comparatively 
pure,  from  the  field.  In  a  paper  by  Prof.  Way  (llth  Jour. 
Roy.  Ag.  Soc.),  on  "  The  Power  of  Soils  to  retain  Manure," 
will  be  found  interesting  illustrations  of  the  filtering 
qualities  of  different  kinds  of  soil. 

In  addition  to  the  above  reasons  for  preferring  covered 
drains,  it  has  been  asserted  by  one  of  the  most  skillful 
drainers  in  the  world  (Mr.  Parkes),  "  that  a  proper  covered 
drain  of  the  same  depth  as  an  open  ditch,  will  drain 
a  greater  breadth  of  land  than  the  ditch  can  effect.  The 
sides  of  the  ditch,"  he  says,  "  become  dried  and  plastered, 
and  covered  with  vegetation;  and  even  while  they  are 


104  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

free  from  vegetation,  their  absorptive  power  is  inferior  to 
the  covered  drain." 

Of  the  depth,  direction,  and  distance  of  drains,  our  views 
will  be  found  under  the  appropriate  heads.  They  apply 
alike  to  open  and  covered  drains. 

BRUSH    DKAINS. 

Having  a  farm  destitute  of  stones,  before  tiles  were 
known  among  us,  we  made  several  experiments  with  cov- 
ered drains  filled  with  brush.  Some  of  those  drains  ope- 
rated well  for  eight  or  ten  years ;  others  caved  in  and 
became  useless  in  three  or  four  years,  according  to  the 
condition  of  the  soil. 

In  a  wet  swamp  a  brush  drain  endures  much  longer  than 
in  sandy  land,  which  is  dry  a  part  of  the  year,  because  the 
brush  decays  in  dry  land,  but  will  prove  nearly  imperisha- 
ble in  land  constantly  wet.  In  a  peat  or  muck  swamp,  we 
should  expect  that  such  drains,  if  carefully  constructed, 
might  last  twenty  years,  but  that  in  a  sandy  loom  they 
would  be  quite  unreliable  for  a  single  year. 

Our  failure  on  upland  with  brush  drains,  has  resulted, 
not  from  the  decay  of  the  wood,  but  from  the  entrance  of 
sand,  which  obstructed  the  channel.  Moles  and  field-mice 
find  these  drains  the  very  day  they  are  laid,  and  occupy 
them  as  permanent  homes  ever  after. 

Those  little  animals  live  partly  upon  earth-worms,  which 
they  find  by  burrowing  after  them  in  the  ground,  and 
partly  upon  insects,  and  vegetation  above  ground.  They 
have  a  great  deal  of  business,  which  requires  convenient 
passages  leading  from  their  burrows  to  the  day-light,  and 
drains  in  which  they  live  will  always  be  found  perforated 
with  holes  from  the  surface.  In  the  Spring,  or  in  heavy 
showers,  the  water  runs  in  streams  into  these  holes,  breaks 
down  the  soft  soil  as  it  goes,  and  finally  the  top  begins  to 
fall  in,  and  the  channel  is  choked  up,  and  the  work  ruined. 


METHODS    OF   DRAINAGE.  105 

We  have  tried  many  precautions  against  this  kind  of 
accident,  but  none  that  was  effectual  on  light  land. 

The  general  mode  of  construction  is  this :  Open  the 
trench  to  the  depth  required,  and  about  12  inches  wide  at 
the  bottom.  Lay  into  this  poles  of  four  or  five  inches 
diameter  at  the  butt,  leaving  an  open  passage  between. 
Then  lay  in  brush  of  any  size,  the  coarsest  at  the  bottom, 
filling  the  drain  to  within  a  foot  of  the  surface,  and  cover- 
ing with  pine,  or  he'mlock,  or  spruce  boughs.  Upon  these 
lay  turf,  carefully  cut,  as  close  as  possible.  The  brush 
should  be  laid  but-end  up  stream,  as  it  obstructs  the  water 
less  in  this  way.  Fill  up  with  soil  a  foot  above  the  sur- 
face, and  tread  it  in  as  hard  as  possible.  The  weight  of 
earth  will  compress  the  brush,  and  the  surface  will  settle 
very  much.  We  have  tried  placing  boards  at  the  sides, 
and  upon  the  top  of  the  brush,  to  prevent  the  caving  in, 
but  with  no  'great  success.  Although  our  drains  thus  laid, 
have  generally  continued  to  discharge  some  water,  yet 
they  have,  upon  upland,  been  dangerous  traps  and  pit-falls 
for  our  horses  and  cattle,  and  have  cost  much  labor  to  fill 
up  the  holes,  where  they  have  fallen  through  by  washing 
away  below. 

In  clay,  brush  drains  might  be  more  durable.  In  the 
English  books,  we  have  descriptions  of  drains  filled  with 
thorn  cuttings  from  hedges  and  with  gorse.  When  well 
laid  in  clay,  they  are  said  to  last  about  15  years.  When 
the  thorns  decay,  the  clay  will  still  retain  its  form,  and 
leave  a  passage  for  the  water. 

A  writer  in  the  Cyclopedia  sums  up  the  matter  as  to 
this  kind  of  drains,  thus : 

"  Although  in  some  districts  they  are  still  employed,they  can  only 
be  looked  upon  as  a  clumsy,  and  superficial  plan  of  doing  that  which  can 
be  executed  in  a  permanent  and  satisfactory  manner,  at  a  very  small 
additional  expense,  now  ihat  draining-tiles  are  so  cheap  and  plentiful." 

Draining-tiles  are  not  yet  either  cheap  or  plentiful  in 
5* 


106  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

this  country  ;  but  we  have  full  faith  that  they  will  become 
BO  very  soon.  In  the  mean  time  it  rLay  be  profitable  for  us 
to  use  such  of  the  substitutes  for  them  as  may  lie  within 
our  reach,  selecting  one  or  another  according  as  material 
is  convenient. 

PLUG-DRAINING 

has  never  been,  that  we  are  aware,  practiced  in  America. 
Our  knowledge  of  it  is  limited  to  what  we  learn  from 
English  books.  We,  therefore,  content  ourselves  with 
giving  from  Morton's  Cyclopedia  the  following  descrip- 
tion and  illustrations. 

"  Plug-draining,  like  mole-draining,  does  not  require  the  use  of  any 
foreign  material — the  channel  for  the  water  being  wholly  formed  of 
clay,  to  which  this  kind  of  drain,  like  that  last  mentioned  is  alone  suited. 

"  This  method  of  draining  requires  a  particular  set  of  tools  for  its 
execution,  consisting  of,  first,  a  common  spade,  by  means  of  which  the 
first  spit  is  removed,  and  laid  on  one  side;  second,  a  smaller-sized 
spade,  by  means  of  which  the  second  spit  is  taken  out,  and  laid  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  trench  thus  formed  j  third,  a  peculiar  instrument 
called  a  bitting  iron  (Fig.  11),  consisting  of  a  narrow  spade,  three  and  a 


Fig.  11. 

half  feet  in  length,  and  one  and  a  half  inches  wide  at  the  mouth  and 
sharpened  like  a  chisel ;  the  mouth,  or  blade,  being  half  an  inch  in 
thickness  in  order  to  give  the  necessary  strength  to  so  slender  an  imple- 
ment. From  the  mouth,  a,  on  the  right-hand  side,  a  ring  of  steel,  6, 
six  inches  long  and  two  and  a  half  broad,  projects  at  right  angles  ;  and 
on  the  left,  at  fourteen  inches  from  the  mouth,  a  tread,  c,  three  inches 
long,  is  fitted. 

"  A  number  of  blocks  of  wood,  each  one  foot  long,  six  inches  high, 
and  two  inches  thick  at  the  bottom,  and  two  and  a  half  at  the  top,  are 
next  required.  From  four  to  six  of  these  are  joined  together  by  piede» 


METHODS   OF   DRAINAGE.  107 

of  hoop-iron  let  into  their  sides  by  a  saw-draught,  a  small  space  being 
left  between  their  ends,  so  that  when  completed,  the  whole  forms  a 
somewhat  flexible  bar,  as  shown  in  the  cut,  to  one  end  of  which  a 


Fig.  12.— PLTTG  DEAINAGB. 

stout  chain  is  attached.  These  blocks  are  wetted,  and  placed  with  the 
narrow  end  undermost,  in  the  bottom  of  the  trench,  which  should  be 
cut  so  as  to  fit  them  closely  •  the  clay  which  has  been  dug  out  is  then 
to  be  returned,  by  .degrees,  upon  the  blocks,  and  rammed  down  with  a 
wooden  rammer  three  inches  wide.  As  soon  as  the  portion  of  the 
trench  above  the  blocks,  or  plugs,  has  been  filled,  they  are  drawn  for- 
ward, by  means  of  a  lever  thrust  through  a  link  of  the  chain,  and  into 
the  bottom  of  the  drain  for  a  fulcrum,  until  they  are  all  again  exposed, 
except  the  last  one.  The  further  portion  of  the  trench,  above  the  blocks, 
is  now  filled  in  and  rammed,  and  so  on  the  operations  proceed  until  the 
whole  drain  is  finished." 

MOLE    DRAINING. 

We  hear  of  an  implement,  in  use  in  Illinois  and  other 
Western  States,  called  the  Gopher  Plow,  worked  by 
a  capstan,  which  drains  wet  land  by  merely  drawing 
through  it  an  iron  shoe,  at  about  two  and  a  half  feet  in 
depth,  without  the  use  of  any  foreign  substance. 

We  hear  reports  of  a  mole  plow,  in  use  in  the  same 
State,  known  by  the  name  of  Marcus  and  Emerson's 
Patent  Subsoiler,  with  which,  an  informant  says,  drains 
are  made  also  in  the  manner  above  iiamed.  This  machine 


108  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

is  worked  by  a  windlass  power,  by  a  horse  or  yoke  of 
oxen,  and  the  price  charged  is  twenty-eight  cents  a  icd 
for  the  work.  These  machines  are,  from  description, 
modifications  of  the  English  Mole  Plow,  an  implement 
long  ago  known  and  used  in  Great  Britain. 


e\ 
Fig.  18.— MOLE  PLOW. 

The  following  description  is  from  Morton's  Cyclopedia : 
"  Mole-Drains  are  the  simplest  of  all  the  forms  of  the  covered  drains. 
They  are  formed  by  means  of  a  machine  called  the  mole  plow.  This 
machine  consists  of  a  long  wooden  beam  and  stilts,  somewhat  in  the 
form  of  the  subsoil  plow ;  but  instead  of  the  apparatus  for  breaking  up 
the  subsoil  in  the  latter,  a  short  cylindrical  and  pointed  bar  of  iron  is 
attached,  horizontally,  to  the  lower  end  of  the  broad  coulter,  which  can 
be  raised  or  lowered  by  means  of  a  slot  in  the  beam.  The  beam  itself 
is  sheathed  with  iron  on  the  under  side,  and  moves  close  to  the  ground ; 
thus  keeping  the  bar  at  the  end  of  the  coulter  at  one  uniform  depth. 
This  machine  is  dragged  through  the  soft  clay,  which  is  the  only  kind 
of  land  on  which  it  can  be  used  with  propriety,  by  means  of  a  chain  and 
capstan,  worked  by  horses,  and  produces  a  hollow  channel  very  similar 
to  a  mole-run,  from  which  it  derives  its  name." 

A  correspondent  of  the  New  York  Tribune  thus  de- 
scribes the  operation  and  utility  of  a  mole  plow,  which  he 
saw  on  the  farm  of  Major  A.  B.  Dickinson,  of  Hornby, 
Steuben  County,  New  York  : 

"  I  believe  there  is  not  a  rod  of  tile  laid  on  this  farm,  and  not  a  dozen 


METHODS    OF   DRAINAGE.  109 

rods  of  covered  stone  drain.  But  the  major  has  a  home-made,  or,  at 
least,  home-devised,  '  bull  plow,'  consisting  of  a  sharp-pointed  iron 
wedge,  or  roller,  surmounted  by  a  broad,  sharp  shank  nearly  four  feet 
high,  with  a  Mill  sharper  cutter  in  front,  and  with  a  beam  and  handles 
above  all.  With  five  yoke  of  oxen  attached,  this  plow  is  put  down 
through  the  soil  and  subsoil  to  an  average  depth  of  three  feet— in  the 
course  which  the  superfluous  water  is  expected  and  desired  to  take — and 
the  field  thus  plowed  through  and  through,  at  intervals  of  two  rods, 
down  to  three  feet,  as  the  ground  is  more  or  less  springy  and  saturated 
with  water.  The  cut  made  by  the  shank  closes  after  the  plow  and  is 
soon  obliterated,  while  that  made  by  the  roller,  or  wedge,  at  the  bottom, 
becomes  the  channel  of  a  stream  of  water  whenever  there  is  any  ex- 
cess of  moisture  above  its  level;  which  stream  tends  to  clear  itself  and 
rather  enlarge  its  channel.  From  ten  to  twenty  acres  a  day  are  thus 
drained,  and  Major  D.  has  such  drains  of  fifteen  to  twenty  years'  stand- 
ing, which  still  do  good  service.  In  rocky  soils,  this  mode  of  draining 
is  impracticable ;  in  sandy  tracts  it  would  not  endure  ]  but  here  it  does 
very  well,  and,  even  though  it  should  hold  good  in  the  average  but  ten 
years,  it  would  many  times  repay  its  cost." 

Major  Dickinson  himself,  in  a  recent  address,  thus  speaks 
of  what  he  calls  his 

SHANGHAE   PLOW. 

"  I  will  take  the  poorest  acre  of  stubble  ground,  and  if  too  wet  for 
corn  in  the  first  place,  I  will  thoroughly  drain  it  with  a  Shanghae  plow 
and  four  yoke  of  oxen  in  three  hours. 

"  I  will  suppose  the  acre  to  be  twenty  rods  long  and  eight  rods  wide. 
To  thoroughly  drain  the  worst  of  your  clay  subsoil,  it  may  require  a  drain 
once  in  eight  feet,  and  they  can  be  made  so  cheaply  that  I  can  afford  to 
make  them  at  that  distance.  To  do  so,  will  require  the  team  to  travel 
sixteen  times  over  the  twenty  rods  lengthwise,  or  one  mile  in  three 
hours  ;  two  men  to  drive,  one  to  hold  the  plow,  one  to  ride  the  beam, 
and  one  to  carry  the  crowbar,  pick  up  any  large  stones  thrown  out  by 
going  to  the  right  or  left,  and  to  help  to  carry  around  the  plow,  which 
is  too  heavy  for  the  other  two  to  do  quickly. 

"  The  plow  is  quite  simple  in  its  construction,  consisting  of  a  round 
piece  of  iron  three  and  a  half  or  four  inches  in  diameter,  drawn  down 
to  a  point,  with  a  furrow  cut  in  the  top  one  and  a  half  inches  deep  ;  a 
plate,  eighteen  inches  wide  and  three  feet  long,  with  one  end  welded 
into  the  furrow  of  the  round  bar,  while  the  other  is  fastened  to  th« 


110  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

beam.  The  coulter  is  six  inches  in  width,  and  is  fastened  to  the  beam 
at  one  end,  and  at  the  other  to  the  point  of  the  round  bar.  The  couher 
and  plate  are  each  three-fourths  of  an  inch  thick,  which  is  the  entire 
width  of  the  plow  above  the  round  iron  at  the  bottoi;;. 

£i  It  would  require  much  more  team  to  draw  this  plow  on  some  soils 
than  on  yours.  The  strength  of  team  depends  entirely  on  the  character 
of  the  subsoil.  Cast-iron,  with  the  exception  of  the  coulter,  for  an  easy 
soil  would  be  equally  good  j  and  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four  inches  is 
sufficiently  deep  to  run  the  plow.  I  can  as  thoroughly  drain  an  acre  of  « 
ground  in  this  way  as  any  that  can  be  found  in  Seneca  County." 

From  the  best  information  we  can  gather,  it  would  seem, 
that  on  certain  soils  with  a  clay  subsoil,  the  mole  plow, 
as  a  sort  of  pioneer  implement,  may  be  very  useful.  The 
above  account  certainly  indicates  that  on  the  farm  in 
question  it  is  very  cheap,  rapid,  and  effectual  in  its  opera- 
t'on. 

Stephens  gives  a  minute  description  of  the  mole  plow 
figured  above,  in  his  Book  of  the  Farm.  Its  general  struc- 
ture and  principle  of  operation  may  be  easily  understood 
by  what  has  been  already  said,  and  any  person  desirous  ot 
constructing  one  may  find  in  that  work  exact  directions. 

WEDGE   AND   SHOULDER   DRAINS. 

These,  like  the  last-mentioned  kind  of  drains,  are  mere 
channels  formed  in  the  subsoil.  They  have,  therefore,  the 
same  fault  of  want  of  durability,  and  are  totally  unfitted  for 
land  under  the  plow.  In  forming  wedge-drains,  the  first 
spit,  with  the  turf  attached,  is  laid  on  one  side,  and  the 
earth  removed  from  the  remainder  of  the  trench  is  laid  on 
the  other.  The  last  spade  used  is  very  narrow,  and  tapers 
rapidly,  so  as  to  form  a  narrow  wedge-shaped  cavity  for 
the  bottom  of  the  trench.  The  turf  first  removed  is  then 
cut  into  a  wedge,  so  much  larger  than  the  size  of  the 
lower  part  of  the  drain,  that  when  rammed  into  it  with  the 
grassy  side  undermost,  it  leaves  a  vacant  space  in  the  bot- 
tom six  or  eight  inches  in  depth,  as  in  Fig.  14. 

The  shoulder-drain  does  not  differ  very  materially  from 


METHODS    OF   DRAINAGE. 


Ill 


the  wedge-drain.  Instead  of  the  whole  trench  forming  a 
gradually  tapering  wedge,  the  upper  portion  of  the  shoul- 
der-drain has  the  sides  of  the  trench  nearly  perpendicular, 
and  of  considerable  width,  the  last  spit  only  being  taken 
out  with  a  narrow,  tapering  spade,  by  which  means  a 
shoulder  is  left  on  either  side,  from  which  it  takes  its  name. 
After  the  trench  has  been  finished,  the  first  spit,  having 
the  grassy  side  undermost  as  in  the  former  case,  is  placed 
in  the  trench,  and  pushed  down  till  it  rests  upon  the  shoul- 
ders already  mentioned  ;  so  that  a  narrow  wedge-shaped 
channel  is  again  left  for  the  water,  as  shown  in  Fig.  15. 


Fig.  14.— WEDGE-DBAIN.  Fig.  15.-  SHOXTLDEE-DRAIN. 

These  drains  may  be  formed  in  almost  any  kind  of  land 
which  is  not  a  loose  gravel  or  sand.  They  are  a  very 
3heap  kind  of  drain ;  for  neither  the  cost  of  cutting  nor 
filling  in,  much  exceeds  that  of  the  ordinary  tile  drain, 
while  the  expense  of  tiles  or  other  materials  is  altogether 
saved.  Still,  such  drains  cannot  be  recommended,  for 
they  are  very  liable  to  injury,  and,  even  under  the  most 
favorable  circumstances,  can  only  last  a  very  limited  time. 

LARCH   TUBES. 

These  have  been  used  in  Scotland,  in  mossy  or  swampy 
Boils,  it  is  said,  with  economy  and  good  results.  The  tube 


112  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

represented  below  presents  a  square  of  4  inches  outside 


Fig.  16.— LAECH  TTTBE-DEAIN. 

with  a  clear  water-way  of  2  inches.  Any  other  durable 
wood  will,  of  course,  answer  the  same  purpose.  The 
tube  is  pierced  with  holes  to  admit  the  water.  In  wet 
meadows,  these  tubes  laid  deep  would  be  durable 
and  efficient,  and  far  more  reliable  than  brush  or  even 
stones,  because  they  may  be  better  protected  from  the 
admission  of  sand  and  the  ruinous  working  of  vermin. 
Their  economy  depends  upon  the  price  of  the  wood  and 
the  cost  of  tiles — which  are  far  better  if  they  can  be  rea- 
sonably obtained. 

Near  Washington,  D.  C.,  we  know  of  drainage  tolerably 
well  performed  by  the  use  of  common  fence-rails.  A 
trench  is  opened  about  three  inches  wider  at  bottom  than 
two  rails.  Two  rails  are  then  laid  in  the  bottom,  leaving 
a  space  of  two  or  three  inches  between  them.  A  third 
rail  is  then  laid  on  for  a  cover,  and  the  whole  carefully 
covered  with  turf  or  straw,  and  then  filled  up  with  earth. 
Poles  of  any  kind  may  be  used  instead  of  rails,  if  more 
convenient. 

In  clay,  these  drains  would  be  efficient  and  durable ;  in 
sand,  they  would  be  likely  to  be  filled  up  and  become 
useless.  This  is  an  extravagant  waste  of  timber,  except 
in  the  new  districts  where  it  is  of  no  value. 

Mr.  J.  F.  Anderson,  of  "Windham,  Maine,  has  adopted 
a  mode  of  draining  with  poles,  which,  in  regions  where 
wood  is  cheap  and  tiles  are  dear,  may  be  adopted  with 
advantage. 

Two  poles,  of  from  3  to  6  inches  diameter,  are  laid  at 
the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  with  a  water-way  of  half  their 
diameter  between  them.  Upon  these,  a  third  pole  is  laid, 


METHODS    OF   DRAINAGE. 


113 


thus  forming  a  duct  of  the  desired  dimensions.  The 
security  of  this  drain  will  depend  upon 
the  care  with  which  it  is  protected  by  a 
covering  of  turf  and  the  like,  to  prevent 
the  admission  of  earth,  and  its  perma- 
nency will  depend  much  upon  its  being 
placed  low  enough  to  be  constantly  wet, 
as  such  materials  are  short-lived  when 
frequently  wet  and  dried,  and  nearly 
imperishable  if  constantly  wet.  .  It  is 
unnecessary  to  place  brush  or  stones 
over  such  drains  to  make  them  draw,  as 
it  is  called.  The  water  will  find  admis- 
sion fast  enough,  and  take  with  it  earth 
enough  to  destroy  the  work,  unless 
great  care  is  used. 
In  Ireland,  and  in  some  parts  of  England  and  Scotland, 
peat-tiles  are  sometimes  used  in  draining  bogs.  They  are 
cheap  and  very  durable  in  such  localities,  but,  probably, 
will  not  be  used  in  this  country.  They  are  formed  some- 
what like  pipes,  of  two  pieces  of  peat.  Two  halves  are 
formed  with  a  peculiar  tool,  with  a  half  circle  in  each. 


Fig.  17. — POLE-DRAIN, 


Fig.  19.— PEAT-TILES. 


When  well  dried,  they  are  placed  together,  thus  making  a 
round  opening. 

In  draining,  the  object  being  merely  to  form  a  durable 


j?ARM   DRAINAGE. 

opening  in  the  soil,  at  suitable  depth,  which  will  receive 
and  conduct  away  the  water  which  filters  through  the 
Boil,  it  is  obvious  that  a  thousand  expedients  may  be 
resorted  to,  to  suit  the  peculiar  circumstances  of  persons. 
In  general,  the  danger  to  be  apprehended  is  from  obstruc- 
tion of  the  water-way.  Nothing,  except  a  tight  tube  of 
metal  or  wood,  will  be  likely  to  prevent  the  admission  of 
water. 

Economy  and  durability  are,  perhaps,  the  main  consid- 
erations. Tiles,  at  fair  prices,  combine  these  qualities 
better  than  anything  else.  Stones,  however,  are  both 
cheap  and  durable,  so  far  as  the  material  is  concerned ; 
but  the  durability  of  the  material,  and  the  durability  of 
the  drains,  are  quite  different  matters. 

DRAINS   OF   STONES. 

Providence  has  so  liberally  supplied  the  greater  part  of 
"New  England  with  stones,  that  it  seems  to  most  inex- 
perienced persons  to  be  a  work  of  supererogation,  almost, 
to  manufacture  tiles  or  any  other  draining  material  for 
our  farms. 

We  would  by  no  means  discourage  the  use  or  stones, 
where  tiles  cannot  be  used  with  greater  economy.  Stone 
drains  are,  doubtless,  as  efficient  as  any,  so  long  as  the 
water-way  can  be  kept  open.  The  material  is  often  close 
at  hand,  lying  on  the  field  and  to  be  removed  as  a 
nuisance,  if  not  used  in  drainage.  In  such  cases,  true 
economy  may  dictate  the  use  of  them,  even  where  tiles 
can  be  procured ;  though,  we  believe,  tiles  will  be  found 
generally  cheaper,  all  things  considered,  where  made  in 
the  neighborhood. 

In  treating  of  the  cost  of  drainage,  we  have  undertaken 
to  give  fair  estimates  of  the  comparative  cost  of  different 
materials. 

Every  farmer  is  capable  of  making  estimates  for  him- 


METHODS    OF   DRAINAGE. 


115 


Self,  and  of  testing  those  made  by  us,  and  so  of  determin- 
ing what  is  true  economy  in  his  particular  case. 

The  various  modes  of  constructing  drains  of  stones,  may 
De  readily  shown  by  simple  illustrations: 


Fig.  20. 


Fig.  22. 


Fig.  23. 


If  stone-drains  are  decided  upon,  the  mode  of  construct- 
ing them  will  depend  upon  the  kind  of  stone  at  hand.  In 
some  localities,  round  pebble-stones  are  found  scattered 
over  the  surface,  or  piled  in  heaps  upon  our  farms ;  in 
others,  flat,  slaty  stones  abound,  and  in  others,  broken  stones 
from  quarries  may  be  more  convenient.  Of  these,  probably, 


116 


FARM    DKAINAGE. 


the  least  reliable  is  the  drain  tilled  with  pebble-stones,  or 
broken  stones  of  small  size.  They  are  peculiarly  liable  to  be 
obstructed,  because  there  is  no  regular  water-way,  and  the 
flow  of  the  water  must,  of  course,  be  very  slow,  impeded 
as  it  is  by  friction  at  all  points  with  the  irregular  surfaces. 

Sand,  and  other  obstructing  substances,  which  find  their 
way,  more  or  less,  into  all  drains,  are  deposited  among  the 
stones — the  water  having^  no  force  of  current  sufficient  to 
carry  them  forward — and  the  drain  is  soon  tilled  up  at 
some  point,  and  ruined. 

Miles  of  such  drains  have  been  laid  on  many  New 
England  farms,  at  shoal  depths,  of  two  or  two  and  a  half 
feet,  and  have  in  a  few  years  failed.  For  a  time,  their  effect, 
to  those  unaccustomed  to  under- drain  age,  seems  almost 
miraculous.  The  wet  field  becomes  dry,  the  wild  grass 
gives  place  to  clover  and  herds-grass,  and  the  experiment 
is  pronounced  successful.  After  a  fewr  years,  however, 
the  wild  grass  re-appears,  the  water  again  stands  on  the 
surface,  and  it  is  ascertained,  on  examination,  that  the 
drain  is  in  some  place  packed  solid  with  earth,  and  is  filled 
with  stagnant  water. 

The  fault  is  by  no  means  wholly  in  the  material.  In 
clay  or  hard  pan,  such  a  drain  may  be  made  durable,  with 
proper  care,  but  it  must  be  laid  deep  enough  to  be  beyond 
the  effect  of  the  treading  of  cattle  and  of  loaded  teams, 
and  the  common  action  of  frost.  They  can  hardly  be  laid 
low  enough  to  be  beyond  the  reach  of  our  great  enemy, 
the  mole,  which  follows  relentlessly  all  our  operations. 

We  recollect  the  remarks  of  Mr.  Downing  about  the 
complaints  in  New  England,  of  injury  to  fruit-trees  by  the 
gnawing  of  field-mice. 

He  said  he  should  as  soon  think  of  danger  from  injury 
by  giraffes  as  field-mice,  in  his  own  neighborhood,  though 
he  had  no  doubt  of  their  depredations  elsewhere  ! 

It  may  seem  to  many,  that  we  lay  too  much  stress  on 


METHODS   OF   DRAINAGE. 


117 


this  point,  of  danger  from  moles  and  mice.  "We  know 
whereof  we  do  testify  in  this  matter.  We  verily  believe 
that  we  never  finished  a  drain  of  brush  or  stones,  on  our 
farm,  ten  rods  long,  that  there  was  not  a  colony  of  these 
varmint  in  the  one  end  of  it,  before  we  had  finished  the 
other.  If  these  drains,  however,  are  made  three  or  four 
feet  deep,  and  the  solid  earth  rammed  hard  over  the  turf 
which  covers  the  stones,  they  will  be  comparatively  safe. 
The  figures  24  and  25  below,  represent  a  mode  of  laying 
stone  drains,  practiced  in  Ireland,  which  will  be  found 
probably  more  convenient  and  secure  than  any  other 
method,  for  common  small  drains.  A  flat  stone  is  set 
upright  against  one  side  of  the  ditch,  which  should  be 
near  the  bottom,  perpendicular.  Another  stone  is  set 
leaning  against  the  first,  with  its  foot  resting  against  the 
opposite  bank.  If  the  soil  be  soft  clay,  a  flat  stone  may  be 
placed  first  on  the  bottom  of  the  ditch,  for  the  water  to  flow 
upon  ;  but  this  will  be  found  a  great  addition  to  the  labor, 
unless  flat  stones  of  peculiarly  uniform  shape  and  thick' 
ness  are  at  hand.  A  board  laid  at  the  bottom  will  be  usu- 
ally far  cheaper,  and  less  liable  to  cause  obstructions. 


Figs.  24,  2^— STONE  DEAIKB. 

Figure  25  represents  the  di^ch  without  the  small 


118  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

above  the  duct.  These  small  stones  are,  in  nine  cases  in 
ten,  worse  than  useless,  for  they  are  not  only  unnecessary 
to  admit  the  water,  but  furnish  a  harbor  for  mice  and 
other  vermin. 

Drawings,  representing  a  filling  of  small  stones  above 
the  duct,  have  been  copied  from  one  work  to  another  for 
generations,  and  it  seems  never  to  have  occurred,  even 
to  modern  writers,  that  the  small  stones  might  be  omitted. 
Any  one,  who  knows  anything  of  the  present  system 
of  draining  with  tiles,  must  perceive  at  once  that,  if  we 
have  the  open  triangular  duct  or  the  square  culvert,  the 
water  cannot  be  kept  from  finding  it,  by  any  filling  over 
it  with  such  earth  as  is  usually  found  in  ditching.  For- 
merly, when  tiles  were  used,  the  ditch  was  filled  above 
the  tiles,  to  the  height  of  a  foot  or  more,  with  broken 
stones  ;  but  this  practice  has  been  everywhere  abandoned 
as  expensive  and  useless. 

An  opening  of  any  form,  equal  to  a  circle  of  two  or 
three  inches  diameter,  will  be  sufiicient  in  most  cases, 
though  the  necessary  size  of  the  duct  must,  of  course, 
depend  on  the  quantity  of  water  which  may  be  expected 
to  flow  in  it  at  the  time  of  the  greatest  flood. 

Whatever  the  form  of  the  stone  drain,  care  should  be 
taken  to  make  the  joints  as  close  as  possible,  and  turf, 
shavings,  straw,  tan,  or  some  other  material,  should  be 
carefully  placed  over  the  joints,  to  prevent  the  washing  in. 
of  sand,  which  is  the  worst  enemy  of  all  drains. 

It  is  not  deemed  necessary  to  remark  particularly  upon 
the  mode  of  laying  large  drains  for  water-courses,  with 
abutments  and  covering  stones,  forming  a  square  duct, 
because  it  is  the  mode  universally  known  and  practiced. 
For  small  drains,  in  thorough-draining  lands,  it  may,  how- 
ever, be  remarked,  that  this  is,  perhaps,  the  most  expen- 
sive of  all  modes,  because  a  much  greater  width  of  exca- 
vation is  necessary  in  order  to  place  in  position  the  two 


METHODS    OF   DRAINAGE.  119 

side  stones  and  leave  the  requisite  space  between  them. 
That  mode  of  drainage  which  requires  the  least  excavation 
and  the  least  carriage  of  materials,  and  consequently  the 
least  filling  up  and  levelling,  is  usually  the  cheapest. 

Our  conclusion  as  to  stone  drains  is,  that,  at  present, 
they  may  be,  in  many  cases,  found  useful  and  economical ; 
and  even  where  tiles  are  to  be  procured  at  present  prictff 
stones  may  well  be  used,  where  materials  are  at  hand,  foi 
the  largest  drains. 


120  FAKM  DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTEB  VL 

DRAINAGE     WITH     TILEP. 

What  are  Drain-Tiles  ?— Forms  of  Tiles.— Pipes.— Horse-shoe  Tiles.— Sole- 
Tiles  -—Form  of  Water-Passage. — Collars  and  their  Use* — Size  of  Pipes. — • 
Velocity. — Friction. — Discharge  of  Water  through  Pipes. — Tables  of 
Capacity. — How  Water  enters  Tiles. — Deep  Drains  run  soonest  and 
longest. — Pressure  of  Water  on  Pipes. — Durability  of  Tile  Drains.— 
Drain-Bricks  100  years  old. 

WHAT  ARE  DRAIN-TILES  ? 

THIS  would  be  an  absurd  question  to  place  at  the  head 
of  a  division  in  a  work  intended  for  the  English  public, 
lor  tiles  are  as  common  in  England  as  bricks,  and  their 
forms  and  uses  as  familiar  to  all.  But  in  America,  though 
tiles  are  used  to  a  considerable  extent  in  some  localities, 
probably  not  one  farmer  in  one  hundred  in  the  whole 
country  ever  saw  one. 

The  author  has  recently  received  letters  of  inquiry 
about  the  use  and  cost  of  tiles,  from  which  it  ic  manifest 
that  the  writers  have  in  their  mind  as  tiles,  the  square 
bricks  with  which  our  grandfathers  used  to  lay  their 
hearths. 

In  Johnstone's  Report  to  the  Board  of  Agriculture  on 
Llkington's  System  of  Draining,  published  in  England  in 
1797,  the  only  kind  of  tiles  or  clay  conduits  described  or 
alluded  to  by  him,  are  what  he  calls  "draining-b ricks,"  of 
which  he  gives  drawings,  which  we  transfer  to  our  pages 
precisely  as  found  in  the  American  edition.  It  will  be 


DRAINAGE   WITH   TILES. 


121 


seen   to   be   as   clumsy  a  contrivance   as  could  well  be 
devised. 


2  in,.   6  inches.    2  in. 


Fig.  26.— DBAINING-BKICKS. 


So  lately  as  1856,  tiles  were  brought  from  Albany, 
N.  Y.,  to  Exeter,  "N.  H.,  nearly  300  miles,  by  railway,  at 
a  cost,  including  freight,  of  $25  a  thousand  for  two-inch 
pipes,  and  it  is  believed  that  no  tiles  were  ever  made  in 
New  Hampshire  till  the  year  1857.  These  facts  will  soon 
become  curiosities  in  agricultural  literature,  and  so  are 
worth  preserving.  They  furnish  excuse,  too,  for  what 
may  appear  to  learned  agriculturists  an  unnecessary  par- 
ticularity in  what  might  seem  the  well-known  facts 
relative  to  tile-drainage. 

Drain-tiles  are  made  of  clay  of  almost  any  quality  that 
will  make  bricks,  moulded  by  a  machine  into  tubes,  or 
into  half-tube  or  horse-shoe  forms,  usually  fourteen  inches 
long  before  drying,  and  burnt  in  a  furnace  or  kilr  to  be 
about  as  hard  as  what  are  called  hard-burnt  bricks  They 
are  usually  moulded  about  half  an  inch  in  thickness, 
varying  with  the  size  and  form  of  the  tile.  The  sizes 
vary  from  one  inch  to  six  inches,  and  sometimes  larger,  in 
the  diameter  of  the  bore.  The  forms  are  also  very 
various  ;  and  as  this  is  one  of  the  most  essential  matterb, 


122 


FARM    DRAINAGE. 


as  affecting  the  efficiency,  the  cost,  and  the  durability  of 
tile-drainage,  it  will  be  well  to  give  it  critical  attention. 

THE    FORMS    OF    TILKS. 

The  simplest,  cheapest,  and  best  form  of  drain-tile  ia 
the  cylinder,  or  merely  a  tube,  round  outside  and  with  a 
round  bore. 


Figs.  27,  28,  29.— BOUND  PIPES. 

Tiles  of  this  form,  and  all  others  which  are  tubular,  are 
called  pipes j  in  distinction  from  those  with  open  bottoms, 
like  those  of  horse-shoe  form. 

About  forty  years  ago,  as  Mr .  Gisborne  informs  us, 
small  pipes  for  land-drainage  were  used,  concurrently,  by 
persons  residing  in  the  counties  of  Lincoln,  Oxford,  and 
Kent,  who  had,  probably,  no  knowledge  of  each  other's 
operations.  Most  of  those  pipes  were  made  with  eyelet- 
holes,  to  admit  the  water.  Pipes  for  thorough-draining 
excited  no  general  attention  till  they  were  exhibited  by 
John  Read  at  the  show  at  Derby,  in  the  year  1843.  A 
medal  was  awarded  to  the  exhibitor.  Mr.  Parkes  was 
one  of  the  judges,  and  brought  the  pipes  to  the  special 
notice  of  the  council.  From  this  time,  inventions  and  im- 
provements were  rapid,  and  soon,  collars  were  introduced, 
and  the  use  of  improved  machines  to  mould  the  pipes ; 


DRAINAGE   WITH   TILES.  123 

and  drainage,  under  the  fostering  influence  of  the  Roya. 
Agricultural  Society,  became  a  subject  of  general  atten- 
tion throughout  the  kingdom.  The  round  pipe,  or  the 
pipe,  as  it  seems,  par  excellence,  to  be  termed  by  English 
drainers,  though  one  of  the  latest,  if  not  the  last  form  of 
tiles  introduced  in  England,  has  become  altogether  the 
most  popular  among  scientific  men,  and  is  generally  used 
in  all  works  conducted  under  the  charge  of  the  Land 
Drainage  Companies.  This  ought  to  settle  the  question 
for  us,  when  we  consider  that  the  immense  sum  of  twenty 
millions  of  dollars  of  public  funds  has  been  expended  by 
them,  in  addition  to  vast  amounts  of  private  funds,  and 
that  the  highest  practical  talent  of  the  nation  is  engaged 
in  the  work. 

After  giving  some  idea  of  the  various  forms  of  tiles  in 
use,  it  is,  however,  proposed  to  examine  the  question 
upon  its  merits,  so  that  each  may  judge  for  himself  which 
is  best. 

The  earliest  form  of  tiles  introduced  for  the  purpose  of 
thorough-drainage,  was  the  horse-shoe  tile,  so  called  from 
its  shape.  The  horse-shoe  tile  has  been  sometimes  used 
without  any  sole  to  form  the  bottom  of  the  drain,  thus 
leaving  the  water  to  run  on  the  ground.  There  can  hardly 
be  a  question  of  the  false  economy  of  this  mode,  for  the 
hardest  and  most  impervious  soil  softens  under  the  con- 
stant action  of  running  water,  and  then  the  edges  of  the 
tiles  must  sink,  or  the  bottom  of  the  drain  rise,  and  thus 
destroy  the  work. 

Various  devices  have  been  tried  to  save  the  expense  of 
soles,  such  as  providing  the  edges  of  the  tiles  with  flangea 
or  using  pieces  of  soles  on  which  to  rest  the  ends  of  the 
tiles.  They  all  leave  the  bottom  of  the  drain  unprotected 
against  the  wearing  action  of  the  water. 

HORSE-SHOE  TILES,  or  "  tops  and  bottoms "  as  they  are 
called  in  some  counties,  are  still  much  used  in  England ; 


124  FARM   DEAINAGE. 

and  in  personal  conversation  with  farmers  there,  the  writer 
found  a  strong  opinion  expressed  in  their  favor.  The  ad- 
vantages claimed  for  the  "  tops  and  bottoms"  are,  that  they 
lie  firmly  in  place,  and  that  they  admit  the  water  more 
freely  than  others. 

The  objections  to  them  are,  that  they  are  more  expen- 
sive than  round  pipes,  and  are  not  so  strong,  and  are  not 
BO  easily  laid,  and  that  they  do  not  discharge  water  so 
well  as  tiles  with  a  round  bore.  In  laying  them,  they 
should  be  made  to  rest  partly  upon  two  adjoining  soles,  or 
to  break  bond,  as  it  is  called.  The  soles  are  made  separate 
from  the  tiles,  and  are  merely  flat  pieces,  of  sufficient 
width  to  support  firmly  both  edges  of  the  tiles.  The  soles 
are  usually  an  inch  wider  than  the  tiles. 


Fig.  30 — HORSE-SHOE  TILES  AND  SOLES. 

The  above  figure  represents  the  horse-shoe  tiles  and 
soles  properly  placed. 

As  this  form  of  tile  has  been  generally  used  by  the  most 
successful  drainers  in  New  York,  it  may  be  well  to  cite 
the  high  authority  of  Mr.  Gisborne  for  the  objections 
which  have  been  suggested.  It  should  be  recollected  in 
this  connection,  that  the  drainage  in  this  country  has  been 
what  in  England  would  be  called  shallow,  and  that  it  is 
too  recent  to  have  borne  the  test  of  time. 

Mr.  Gisborne  says : 

''We  shall  shock  and  surprise  many  of  our  readers,  when  we  state 
confidently  that,  in  average  soils,  and  still  more  in  those  which  are 
inclined  to  be  tender,  horse-shoe  tiles  form  the  weakest  and  most  failing 
conduit  which  has  ever  been  used  for  a  deep  drain.  It  is  so,  however  • 
and  a  little  thought,  even  if  we  had  no  experience,  will  tell  us  that  it 
must  be  so. 

"  A  horse-shoe  tile,  which  may  be  a  tolerably  secure  conduit  in  a 
drain  of  2  feetj  in  one  of  4  feet  becomes  an  almost  certain  failure.  At 


DRAINAGE   WITH   TILES.  125 

to  the  longitudinal  fracture,  not  only  is  the  tile  subject  to  be  broken 
by  one  of  those  slips  whieh  are  »}  troublesome  in  deep  draining,  and  to 
which  the  lightly-filled  material,  even  when  the  drain  is  completed, 
offers  an  imperfect  resistance,  but  the  constant  pressure  together  of  the 
sides,  even  when  it  does  not  produce  a  fracture  of  the  soil,  catches  hold 
of  the  feet  of  the  tile,  and  breaks  it  through  the  crown.  When  the 
Regent's  Park  was  first  drained,  large  conduits  were  in  fashion,  and  they 
were  made  circular  by  placing  one  horse-shoe  tile  upon  another.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  invent  a  weaker  conduit.  On  re-drainage,  innu- 
merable instances  were  found  in  which  the  upper  tile  was  broken 
through  the  crown  and  had  dropped  into  the  lower. 

Another  form  of  tiles,  called  sole-tiles,  or  sole-pipe* 
is  much  used  in  America,  more  indeed  than  any  other, 
except  perhaps  the  horse-shoe  tile ;  probably,  because  the 
first  manufacturers  fancied  them  the  best,  and  offered  no 
others  in  the  market. 

In  this  form,  the  sole  is  solid  with  the  tile.  The  bottom 
is  flat,  but  the  bore  is  round,  or  oval,  or  egg-shaped,  with 
the  small  end  of  the  orifice  downward. 


Fig.  31— SOLE-TILE. 

The  sole-pipe  has  considerable  advantages  theoretically. 
The  opening  or  bore  is  of  the  right  shape,  the  bottom  lies 
fair  and  firm  in  place,  and  the  drain,  indeed,  is  perfect,  if 
carefully  and  properly  laid. 

The  objections  to  the  sole-pipes  are,  that  they  are  some- 
what more  expensive  than  round  pipes,  and  that  they 
require  great  care  in  placing  them,  so  as  to  make  the 
passage  even  from  one  pipe  to  another. 

A  slight  depression  of  one  side  of  a  pipe  of  this  kind, 
especially  if  the  bore  be  oval  or  egg-shaped,  throws  the 
water  passage  out  of  line.  In  laying  them,  the  author  has 
taken  the  precaution  to  place  under  each  joint  a  thin  piece 
of  wood,  such  as  our  honest  shoe  manufacturers  use  for 


126  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

t 

BtiiFening  in  shoes,  to  keep  the  bottoms  of  the  pipes  even, 
at  least  until  the  ground  has  settled  compactly,  and  as 
much  longer  as  they  may  escape  "  decay's  effacing  linger." 
COLLARS  for  tiles  are  used  wherever  a  sudden  descent 
occurs  in  the  course  of  a  drain,  or  where  there  is  a  loose 
sand  or  a  boggy  place,  and  by  many  persons  they  are  used 
in  all  drains  through  sandy  or  gravelly  land. 


Fig.  32. — PIPES  AND  COLLAE. 

The  above  figure  represents  pipe-tiles  fitted  with  collars. 
Collars  are  merely  short  sections  of  pipes  of  such  size  as 
to  fit  upon  the  smaller  ones  loosely,  covering  the  joint,  and 
holding  the  ends  in  place,  so  that  they  cannot  slip  past 
each  other.  In  very  bad  places,  small  pipes  may  be  en- 
tirely sheathed  in  larger  ones;  and  this  is  advisable  in 
steep  descents  or  flowing  sands. 

A  great  advantage  in  round  pipes  is,  that  there  is  no 
wrong-side-up  to  them,  and  they  are,  therefore,  more 
readily  placed  in  position  than  tiles  of  any  other  form. 

Again  :  all  tiles  are  more  or  less  warped  in  drying  and 
burning ;  and,  where  it  is  desired  to  make  perfect  work, 
round  pipes  may  be  turned  so  as  to  make  better  joints  and 
a  straighter  run  for  the  water — which  is  very  important. 

If  collars  are  used,  there  is  still  less  difficulty  in  adjust- 
ing the  pipes  so  as  to  make  the  lines  straight,  and  far  less 
danger  of  obstruction  by  sand  or  roots.  Indeed,  it  is  be- 
lieved that  no  drain  can  be  made  more  perfect  than  with 
round  pipes  and  collars. 

As  it  is  believed  that  few  collars  have  ever  yet  been 
used  in  this  country,  and  the  best  drainers  in  England  are 
not  agreed  as  to  the  necessity  of  using  them,  we  give  the 
opinions  of  two  or  three  distinguished  gentlemen,  in  their 
own  language.  Mr.  Gisborne  says  : 

"  We  were  astounded  to  find,  at  the  conclusion  of  Mr.  Parke*'  New- 


DRAINAGE  WITH   TILES.  127 

castle  Lecture,  this  sentence  :  '  It  may  be  advisable  for  me  to  say,  that 
in  clays,  and  other  clean-cutting  and  firm-bottomed  soils,  I  do  not  find 
the  collars  to  be  indispensably  necessary,  although  I  always  prefer  their 
use.'  This  is  a  barefaced  treachery  to  pipes,  an  abandonment  of  the 
strongest  point  in  their  case — the  assured  continuity  of  the  conduit 
Every  one  may  see  how  very  small  a  disturbance  at  their  point  of 
junction  would  dissociate  two  pipes  of  one  inch  diameter.  One  finds  a 
soft  place  in  the  bottom  of  the  drain  and  dips  his  nose  into  it  one  inch 
deep,  and  cocks  up  his  other  end.  By  this  simple  operation,  the  con- 
tinuity of  the  conduit  is  twice  broken.  An  inch  of  lateral  motion  pro- 
duces the  same  effect.  Pipes  of  a  larger  diameter  than  two  inches  are 
generally  laid  without  collars.  This  is  a  practice  on  which  we  do  not 
look  with  much  complacency ;  it  is  the  compromise  between  cost  and 
security,  to  which  the  affairs  of  men  are  so  often  compelled.  No  doubt, 
a  conduit  from  three  to  six  inches  in  diameter  is  much  less  subject  to  a 
breach  in  its  continuity  than  one  which  is  smaller ;  but,  when  no  col- 
lars are  used,  the  pipes  should  be  laid  with  extreme  care,  and  the  bed 
which  is  prepared  for  them  at  the  bottom  of  the  drain  should  be  worked 
to  their  size  and  shape  with  great  accuracy. 

"  To  one  advantage  which  is  derived  from  the  use  of  collars  we  have 
not  yet  adverted — the  increased  facility  with  which  free  water  existing 
in  the  soil  can  find  entrance  into  the  conduit. 

"  The  collar  for  a  one  and  a  half  inch  pipe  has  a  circumference 
of  nine  inches.  The  whole  space  between  the  collar  and  the  pipe, 
on  each  side  of  the  collar,  is  open,  and  affords  no  resistance  to  the 
entrance  of  water;  while,  at  the  same  time,  the  superincumbent 
arch  of  the  collar  protects  the  junction  of  two  pipes  from  the  in- 
trusion of  particles  of  soil.  We  confess  to  some  original  misgivings, 
that  a  pipe  resting  only  on  an  inch  at  each  end,  and  lying  hollow, 
might  prove  weak,  and  liable  to  fracture  by  weight  pressing  on  it  from 
above ;  but  the  fear  was  illusory.  Small  particles  of  soil  trickle  down 
the  sides  of  every  drain,  and  the  first  flow  of  water  will  deposit  them  in 
the  vacant  space  between  the  two  collars.  The  bottom,  if  at  all  soft, 
will  also  swell  up  into  any  vacancy.  Practically,  if  you  re-open  a 
drain  well  laid  with  pipes  and  collars,  you  will  find  them  reposing  in  a 
beautiful  nidus,  which,  when  they  are  carefully  removed,  looks  exactly 
as  if  it  had  been  moulded  for  them." 

As  to  the  danger  of  breaking  the  pipes,  which  might 
well  be  apprehended,  we  found  by  actual  experiment,  at 
the  New  York  Central  Park,  that  a  one-inch  Albany  pipo 


128  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

resting  on  collars  upon  a  floor,  with  a  bearing  at  eacn  end 
of  but  one  inch,  would  support  the  weight  of  a  man 
weighing  160  pounds,  standing  on  one  foot  on  the  middle 
of  the  pipe. 

Mr.  Parkes  sums  up  his  opinion  upon  the  subject  of  col- 
lars, in  these  words : 

"  It  may  be  advisable  for  me  to  say,  that  in  clays,  and  other  clean- 
cutting  and  firm-bottomed  soils,  I  do  not  find  collars  to  be  at  all  neces- 
sary ;  but  that  they  are  essential  in  all  sandy,  loose,  and  soft  strata." 

In  draining  in  the  neighborhood  of  trees,  collars  are  also 
supposed  to  be  of  great  use  in  preventing  the  intrusion  of 
roots  into  the  pipes,  although  it  may  be  impossible,  even 
in  this  way,  to  exclude  the  roots  of  water-loving  trees. 

From  the  most  careful  inquiry  that  the  writer  was  able 
to  make,  as  to  the  practice  in  England,  he  is  satisfied  that 
collars  are  not  generally  used  there  in  the  drainage  of 
clays,  but  that  the  pipes  are  laid  in  openings  shaped  for 
them  at  the  bottom  of  the  drains,  with  a  tool  which  forms 
a  groove  into  which  the  pipes  fall  readily  into  line,  and 
very  little  seems  to  be  said  of  collars  in  the  published 
estimates  of  the  cost  of  drainage. 

On  this  subject,  we  have  the  opinion  of  Mr.  Denton, 
thus  expressed  : 

"  The  use  of  collars  is  by  no  means  general,  although  those  who  have 
used  them  speak  highly  of  their  advantages.  Except  in  sandy  soils, 
and  in  those  that  are  subject  to  sudden  alteration  of  character,  in  some 
of  the  deposits  of  red  sand-stones,  and  in  the  clayey  subsoils  of  the 
Bagshot  sand  district,  for  instance,  collars  are  not  found  to  be  essential 
to  good  drainage.  In  the  north  of  England  they  are  used  but  seldom, 
and,  in  my  opinion,  much  less  than  they  ought  to  be ;  but  this  opinion, 
it  is  right  to  state,  is  opposed,  in  numerous  instances  of  successfu* 
drainage,  by  men  of  extensive  practice ;  and  as  every  cause  of  increas- 
ed outlay  is  to  be  avoided,  the  value  of  collars,  as  general  appliances, 
remains  an  open  question.  In  all  the  more  porous  subsoils  in  which 
collars  have  not  been  used,  the  more  successful  drainers  increase  the 
size  of  the  pipes  in  the  minor  drains  to  a  minimum  size  of  two  inchea 
bore." 


DRAINAGE   WITH   TILES.  129 

The  form  of  the  bcre,  or  water  passage,  in  tiles,  is  a  point 
of  more  importance  than  at  first  appears.  At  one  of  our 
colleges,  certain  plank  sewers,  in  the  ordinary  square  form, 
were  often  obstructed  by  the  sediment  from  the  dirty 
water.  "  Turn  them  cornerwise,"  suggested  the  professor 
of  Natural  Philosophy.  It  was  done,  and  ever  after  they 
kept  in  order.  The  pressure  of  water  depends  on  its  height, 
or  head.  Everybody  knows  that  six  feet  of  water  carries 
a  mill-wheel  better  than  one  foot.  The  same  principle  oper- 
ates on  a  small  scale.  An  inch  head  of  water  presses  harder 
than  a  half  inch.  The  velocity  of  water,  again,  depends 
much  on  its  height.  Whether  there  be  much  or  little 
water  passing  through  a  drain,  it  has  manifestly  a  greater 
power  to  make  its  way,  to  drive  before  it  sand  or  other 
obstructions,  when  it  is  heaped  up  in  a  round  passage, 
than  when  wandering  over  the  flat  surface  of  a  tile  sole. 
Any  one  who  has  observed  the  discharge  of  water  from 
flat-bottomed  and  round  tiles,  will  be  satisfied  that  the 
quantity  of  water  which  is  sufficient  to  run  in  a  rapid 
stream  of  a  half  or  quarter  inch  diameter  from  a  round 
tile,  will  lazily  creep  along  the  flat  bottom  of  a  sole  tile, 
with  hardly  force  sufficient  to  turn  aside  a  grain  of  sand, 
or  to  bring  back  to  light  an  enterprising  cricket  that  may 
have  entered  on  an  exploration.  On  the  whole,  solid  tiles, 
with  flat-bottomed  passages,  may  be  set  down  among  the 
inventions  of  the  adversary.  They  have  not  the  claims 
even  of  the  horse-shoe  form  to  respect,  because  they  do 
not  admit  water  better  than  round  pipes,  and  are  not  united 
by  a  sole  on  which  the  ends  of  the  adjoining  tiles  rest. 
They  combine  the  faults  of  all  other  forms,  with  the  pecu- 
liar virtues  of  none. 


Fig.  83 — FLAT-BOTTOMET 

6* 


130  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

From  an  English  report  on  the  drainage  of  towns,  the 
following,  which  illustrates  this  point,  is  taken  : 

"  It  was  found  that  a  large  proportion  of  sewers  were  constructed 
with  flat  bottoms,  which,  when  there  was  a  small  discharge,  spread  the 
water,  increased  the  friction,  retarded  the  flow,  and  accumulated  de- 
posit. It  was  ascertained,  that  by  the  substitution  of  circular  sewers 
of  the  same  width,  with  the  same  inclination  and  the  same  run  of 
water,  the  amount  of  deposit  was  reduced  more  than  one-half." 

THE    SIZE    OF   TILES 

Is  a  matter  of  much  importance,  whether  we  regard  the 
efficiency  and  durability  of  our  work,  or  economy  in 
completing  it.  The  cost  of  tiles,  and  the  freight  of  them, 
increase  rapidly  with  their  size,  and  it  is,  therefore,  well 
to  use  the  smallest  that  will  effect  the  object  in  view. 
Tiles  should  be  large  enough,  as  a  first  proposition,  to 
carry  off,  in  a  reasonable  time,  all  the  surplus  water  that 
may  fall  upon  the  land.  Here,  the  English  rules  will  not 
be  safe  for  us ;  for,  although  England  has  many  more  rainy 
days  thi«i  we  have,  yet  we  have,  in  general,  a  greater  fall 
of  rain  -more  inches  of  water  from  the  clouds  in  the  year. 
Instead  of  their  eternal  drizzle,  we  have  thunder  showers 
in  Pammer,  and  in  Spring  and  Autumn  north-east  storms, 
w)  en  the  windows  of  heaven  are  opened,  and  a  deluge, 
except  in  duration,  bursts  upon  us.  Then,  at  the  JSTorth, 
7ne  Winter  snows  cover  the  fields  until  April,  when  they 
mddenly  dissolve,  often  under  heavy  showers  of  rain,  and 
planting  time  is  at  once  upon  us.  It  is  desirable  that  all  the 
snow  and  rain-water  should  pass  through  the  soil  into  the 
drains,  instead  of  overflowing  the  surface,  so  as  to  save  the 
elements  of  fertility  with  which  such  water  abounds,  and 
also  to  prevent  the  washing  of  the  soil.  We  require, 
then,  a  greater  capacity  of  drainage,  larger  tiles,  than  do 
the  English,  for  our  drains  must  do  a  greater  work  than 
theirs,  and  in  less  time. 


DRAINAGE  WITH  TILES.  131 

There  are  several  other  general  considerations  that 
should  be  noticed,  before  we  attempt  to  define  the  particu- 
lar size  for  any  location.  Several  small  drains  are  usually 
discharged  into  one  main  drain.  This  main  should  have 
sufficient  capacity  to  conduct  all  the  water  that  may  be 
expected  to  enter  it,  and  no  more.  If  the  small  drains 
overflow  it,  the  main  will  be  liable  to  be  burst,  or  the  land 
about  it  filled  with  water,  gushing  from  it  at  the  joints  ; 
especially,  if  the  small  drains  come  down  a  hill  side,  so  as 
to  give  a  great  pressure,  or  head  of  water.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  the  main  be  larger  than  is  necessary,  there  is  the 
useless  expense  of  larger  tiles  than  were  required.  The 
capacity  of  pipes  to  convey  water,  depends,  other  things 
being  equal,  upon  their  size  ;  but  here  the  word  size  has 
a  meaning  which  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind. 

The  capacity  of  round  water-pipes  is  in  proportion  to 
the  squares  of  their  diameters. 

A  one-inch  pipe  carries  one  inch  (circular,  not  square) 
of  water,  but  a  two-inch  pipe  carries  not  two  inches  only, 
but  twice  two,  or  four  inches  of  water  ;  a  three-inch  pipe 
carries  three  times  three,  or  nine  inches  ;  and  a  four-inch 
pipe,  sixteen  inches.  Thus  we  see,  that  under  the  same 
conditions  as  to  fall,  directness,  smoothness,  and  the  like, 
a  four-inch  pipe  carries  just  four  times  as  much  water  as 
a  two-inch  pipe.  In  fact,  it  will  carry  more  than  this 
proportion,  because  friction,  which  is  an  important  ele- 
ment in  all  such  calculations,  is  greater  in  proportion  to 
the  smaller  size  of  the  pipe. 

VELOCITY  is  another  essential  element  to  be  noticed  in 
determining  the  amount  of  water  which  may  be  dis- 
charged through  a  pipe  of  given  diameter.  Yelocity, 
again,  depends  on  several  conditions.  Water  runs  faster 
down  a  steep  hill  than  down  a  gentle  declivity.  This  is 
due  to  the  weight  of  the  water,  or,  in  other  words,  to 
gravitation,  and  operates  whether  the  water  be  at  large  on 


132  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

the  ground,  or  confined  in  a  pipe,  and  it  operates  alike 
whether  the  water  in  a  pipe  fill  its  bore  or  not. 

But,  again,  the  velocity  of  water  in  a  pipe  depends  on 
the  pressure,  or  head  of  water,  behind  it,  and  there  is,  per- 
haps, no  definite  limit  to  the  quantity  of  water  that  may 
be  forced  through  a  given  orifice.  More  water,  for 
instance,  is  often  forced  through  the  pipe  of  a  fire-engine  in 
full  play,  in  ten  minutes,  than  would  run  through  a  pipe 
of  the  same  diameter,  lying  nearly  level  in  the  ground,  in 
ten  hours. 

In  ordinary  aqueducts,  for  supplying  water,  and  not  for 
drainage,  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  high  pressure  upon  the 
pipes  to  ensure  a  rapid  flow  ;  but  in  drainage,  a  careful 
distinction  must  be  made  between  velocity  induced  by  grav- 
itation, and  velocity  induced  by  pressure.  If  induced  by  the 
former  merely,  the  pipe  through  which  the  water  is  swiftly 
running,  if  not  quite  full,  may  still  receive  water  at  every 
joint,  while,  if  the  velocity  be  induced  by  pressure,  the 
pipe  must  be  already  full.  It  can  then  receive  no  more, 
and  must  lose  water  at  the  joints,  and  wet  the  land  through 
which  it  passes,  instead  of  draining  it. 

So  that  although  we  should  find  that  the  mains  might 
carry  a  vast  quantity  of  water  admitted  by  minor  drains  from 
high  elevations,  yet  we  should  bear  in  mind,  that  drains 
when  full  can  perform  no  ordinary  office  of  drainage.  If 
there  is  more  than  the  pressure  of  four  feet  head  of  water 
behind ;  the  pipes,  if  they  passed  through  a  pond  of  water, 
at  four  feet  deep,  must  lose  and  not  receive  water  at  the 
joints. 

The  capacity  of  a  pipe  to  convey  water  depends,  then, 
not  only  on  its  size,  but  on  its  inclination  or  fall — a  pipe 
running  down  a  considerable  descent  having  much  greater 
capacity  than  one  of  the  same  size  lying  nearly  level. 
This  fact  should  be  borne  in  mind  even  in  laying  single 
drains ;  for  it  is  obvious  that  if  the  di-ain  lie  along  a  sandy 


DRAINAGE   WITH   TILES.  133 

plain,  for  instance,  extending  down  a  springy  hill-side, 
and  then,  as  is  usually  the  case,  along  a  lower  plain 
again,  to  its  outlet  at  some  stream,  it  may  collect  as  much 
water  as  will  fill  it  before  it  reaches  the  lower  level.  Its 
Btream  rushes  swiftly  down  the  descent,  and  when  it 
reaches  the  plain,  there  is  not  sufficient  fall  to  carry  it 
away  by  its  natural  gravitation.  It  will  still  rush  onward 
to  its  outlet,  urged  by  the  pressure  from  behind  ;  but,  with 
such  pressure,  it  will,  as  we  have  seen,  instead  of  draining 
the  land,  suffuse  it  with  water. 

FKICTION, 

As  has  already  been  suggested,  is  an  element  that  much 
interferes  with  exact  calculations  as  to  the  relative  capa- 
city of  water-pipes  of  various  dimensions,  and  this  de- 
pends upon  several  circumstances,  such  as  smoothness,  and 
exactness  of  form,  and  directness.  The  smoother,  the 
more  regular  in  form,  arid  the  straighter  the  drain,  the 
more  water  will  it  convey.  Thus,  in  some  recent  English 
experiments, 

£-  it  was  found  that,  with  pipes  of  the  same  diameter,  exactitude  of 
form  was  of  more  importance  than  smoothness  of  surface  ]  that  glass 
pipes,  which  a  ad  a  wavy  surface,  discharged  less  water,  at  the  same 
inclinations,  than  Staffordshire  stone-ware  clay  pipes,  which  were  of 
perfectly  exact  construction.  By  passing  pipes  of  the  same  clay — the 
common  red  clay — under  a  second  pressure,  obtained  by  a  machine  at 
an  extra  expense  of  about  eighteen  pence  per  thousand,  whilst  the 
pipe  was  half  dry,  very  superior  exactitude  of  form  was  obtained,  anu 
by  means  of  this  exactitude,  and  with  nearly  the  same  diameters,  ar 
increased  discharge  of  water  of  one-fourth  was  effected  within  the  same 
time." 

So  all  sudden  turns  or  angles  increase  friction  and 
retard  velocity,  and  thus  lessen  the  capacity  of  the  drain 
— a  topic  which  may  be  more  properly  considered  under 
the  head  of  the  junction  of  drains. 

"  On  a  large  scale,  it  was  found  that  when  equal  quantities  of  water 
Were  running  direct,  at  a  rate  of  90  seconds,  with  a  turn  at  right-angles 


134  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

the  discharge  was  only  jffected  in  140  seconds  ;  whilst,  with  a  turn  01 
junction  with  a  gentle  carve,  the  discharge  was  effected  in  lOOsecondjr" 

We  are  indebted  to  Messrs.  Shedd  &  Edson  for  the  fol- 
lowing valuable  tables  showing  the  capacity  of  water- 
pipes,  with  the  accompanying  suggestions: 


"  The  following  tables  of  discharge  are  founded  on  the  experiments 
made  hy  Mr.  Smeaton,  and  have  been  compared  with  those  by  Henry 
Law,  and  with  the  rules  of  Weisbach  and  D'Aubuisson.  The  condi 
tions  under  which  such  experiments  are  made  may  be  so  essentially 
different  in  each  case,  that  few  experiments  give  results  coincident  with 
each  other,  or  with  the  deductions  of  theory  ;  and  in  applying  these 
tables  to  practice,  it  is  quite  likely  that  the  discharge  of  a  pipe  of  a  cer- 
tain area,  at  a  certain  inclination,  may  be  quite  unlike  the  discharge 
found  to  be  due  to  those  conditions  by  this  table,  and  that  difference  may 
be  owing  partly  to  greater  or  less  roughness  on  the  inside  of  the  pipe, 
unequal  flow  of  water  through  the  joints  into  the  pipe,  crookedness  of 
the  pipes,  want  of  accuracy  in  their  being  placed,  so  that  the  fall  may 
not  be  uniform  throughout,  or  the  ends  of  the  pipes  may  be  shoved  a 
little  to  one  side,  so  that  the  continuity  of  the  channel  is  partially 
broken  ;  and.  indeed,  from  various  other  causes,  all  of  which  may  occur 
in  any  practical  case,  unless  great  care  is  taken  to  avoid  it,  and  some 
of  which  may  occur  in  almost  any  case. 

Ci  We  have  endeavored  to  so  construct  the  tables  that,  in  the  ordinary 
practice  of  draining,  the  discharge  given  may  approximate  to  the  truth 
for  a  well  laid  drain,  subject  even  to  considerable  friction.  The  exper- 
iments of  Mr.  Smeaton,  which  we  have  adopted  as  the  basis  of  these 
tables,  gave  a  less  quantity  discharged,  under  certain  conditions,  than 
given  under  similar  conditions  by  other  tables.  This  result  is  probably 
due  to  a  greater  amount  of  friction  in  the  pipes  used  by  Smeaton.  The 
curves  of  friction  resemble,  very  nearly,  parabolic  curves,  but  are  not 
quite  so  sharp  near  the  origin. 

"  We  propose,  during  the  coming  season,  to  institute  some  careful 
experiments,  to  ascertain  the  friction  due  to  our  own  drain-pipe.  Water 
can  get  into  the  drain-pipe  very  freely  at  the  joints,  as  may  be  seen  by 
a  simple  calculation.  It  is  impossible  to  place  the  ends  so  closely  to- 
gether, in  laying,  as  to  make  a  tight  joint  on  account  of  roughness  in 
the  clay,  twisting  in  burning,  &c. ;.  and  the  opening  thus  made  will  usu- 
Eily  average  ab<  it  one-tenth  of  an  inch  on  the  whole  circumference, 


DRAINAGE   WITH   TILES. 


135 


which  is,  on  the  inside  of  a  two-inch  pipe,  six  inches — making  six-tenths 
of  a  square  inch  opening  for  the  entrance  of  water  at  each  joint. 

"  In  a  lateral  drain  200  feet  long,  the  pipes  being  thirteen  inches  long, 
there  will  be  184  joints,  each  joint  having  an  opening  of  six-tenth 
square  inch  area;  in  184  joints  there  is  an  aggregate  area  of  110 
square  inches;  the  area  of  the  opening  at  the  end  of  a  two-inch  pipe  is 
about  three  inches;  110  square  inches  inlet  to  three  inches  outlet; 
thirty-seven  times  as  much  water  can  flow  in  as  can  flow  out.  There 
is,  then,  no  need  for  the  water  to  go  through  the  pores  of  the  pipe  :  and 
the  fact  is.  we  think,  quite  fortunate,  for  the  passage  of  water  through 
the  pores  would  in  no  case  be  sufficient  to  benefit  the  land  to  much  ex- 
tent. We  tried  an  experiment,  by  stopping  one  end  of  an  ordinary 
drain-pipe  and  filling  it  with  water.  At  the  end  of  sixty-five  hours, 
water  still  stood  in  the  pipe  three-fourths  of  an  inch  deep.  About  half 
the  water  first  put  into  the  pipe  had  run  out  at  the  end  of  twenty-four 
hours.  If  the  pipe  was  stopped  at  both  ends  and  plunged  four  feet 
deep  in  water,  it  would  undoubtedly  fill  in  a  short  time ;  but  such  a  test 
is  an  unfair  one,  for  no  drain  could  be  doing  service,  over  which  water 
could  collect  to  the  depth  of  four  feet.' 

1|-INCH      DRAIN-PIPE. 
Area  :  1.76709  inches. 


FALL 
in 
100  feet. 

VELOCITY 
per    second 
in  feet. 

DlBCHABGE 

in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

FALL 
in 

100  feet. 

VELOCITY 
per    second 
in  feet. 

DISCHARGE 

in  gallons 
in   24  hours. 

ft.   ir,. 

0.3 

0.71 

5630.87 

ft.   in. 

5.3 

3.75 

29704.51 

0.6 

1.04 

8248.03 

5.6 

3.84 

30454.28 

0.9 

1.29 

10230.73 

5.9 

3.93 

31168.06 

1.0 

1.52 

12054.81 

6.0 

4.00 

31723.21 

1.3 

1.74 

13799.59 

6.3 

4.10 

32516.36 

1.6 

1.91 

15147.83 

6.6 

4.18 

33150.76 

1.9 

2.10 

16654.68 

6.9 

4.25 

33705.91 

2.0 

2.26 

17923.61 

7.0 

4.33 

34340.38 

2.3 

2.41 

19113.23 

7.3 

4.41 

34974.85 

2.6 

2.56 

20302.86 

7.6 

4.49 

35609.30 

2.9 

2.69 

21333.86 

7.9 

4.56 

36154.45 

3.0 

2.83 

22444.17 

8.0 

4.65 

36878.23 

3.3 

2.94     ;       23150.71 

8.3 

4.71 

37354.08 

3.6 

3.06 

24268.25 

8.6 

4.79 

37988.55 

3.9 

3.16 

25061.34 

8.9 

4.85 

38464.40 

4.0 

3.28 

26013.03 

9.0 

4.91 

38940.25 

4.3 

3.38 

26806.11 

9.3 

4.98 

39495.39 

4.6 

3.46 

27440.58 

9.6 

5.04 

39971.24 

4.9 

3.56 

28233.66 

9.9 

5.10 

40447.10 

5.0 

3.65 

28947.43 

10.0 

5.16 

40922.93 

136 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


2-INCH    DRAIN-PIPE. 

3-INCH     DRAIN-PIPE. 

FALL 
in 
100  feet. 

VELOCITY 
per    second 
in  feet 

DlSCHABGB 

in  gallons 
in    24   hours. 

FALL 
in 
100  feet. 

VELOCITY  '        DISCHARGE 
per    second          in  gallons 
in  feet.           in    24   hours. 

ft.   in. 

0.3 

0.79 

10575.4 

ft.   in. 

0.3 

0.90 

24687.2 

0.6 

1.16 

15528.4 

0.6 

1.33 

36482.2 

0.9 

1.50 

20079.9 

0.9 

1.66 

45534.2 

1.0 

1.71 

22891.1 

1.0 

1.94 

53214.7 

1.3 

1.94 

25970.0 

1.3  ' 

2.19 

60072.2 

1.6 

2.16 

28915.1 

1.6 

2.43 

66655.5 

1.9 

2.35 

31458.5 

1.9 

2.63 

72141.  i 

2.0 

2.53 

33868.1 

2.0 

2.83 

77627.6 

2.3 

2.69 

36009.9 

2.3 

3.00 

82290.7 

2.6 

2.83 

37884.0 

2.6 

3.16 

86679.6 

2.9 

2.97 

39758.2 

2.9 

3.31 

90794.1 

3.0 

3.11 

41632.4 

3.0 

3.47 

95182.9 

3.3 

3.24 

43372.6 

3.3 

3.60 

98748.9 

3.6 

3.36 

44979.0 

3.6 

3.74 

102589.1 

3.9 

3.48 

46585.4 

3.9 

3.87 

106155.0 

4.0 

3.59 

48057.9 

4.0 

3.99 

109446.7 

4.3 

3.70 

49530.5 

4.3 

4.11 

112738.3 

4.6 

3.80 

50869.1 

4.6 

4.23 

116029.9 

4.9 

3.91 

52341.6 

4.9 

4.34 

119047.3 

5.0 

4.02 

53814.1 

5.0 

4.46 

122338.9 

5.3 

4.11 

55018.9 

5.3 

4.57 

125356.2 

5.6 

4.22 

56491.5 

5.6 

4.68 

128373.5 

5.9 

4.31 

57696.3 

5.9 

4.78 

131116.6 

6.0 

4.40 

58901.1 

6.0 

4.89 

134133.9 

6.3 

4.49 

60105.9 

6.3 

4.98 

136602.6 

6.6 

4.58 

61309.7 

6.6 

5.08 

139345.6 

6.9 

4.66 

62381.6 

6.9 

5.18 

142088.7 

7.0 

4.74 

63452.5 

7.0 

5.27 

144557.4 

7.3 

4.83 

64667.3 

7.3 

5.37 

147306.4 

7.6 

4.91 

65728.3 

7.6 

5.46 

150069.1 

7.9 

4.99 

66799.2 

7.9 

5.55 

152237.8 

8.0 

5.07 

67870.1 

8.0 

5.64 

154706.6 

8.3 

5.15 

68941.0 

8.3 

5.73 

157175.3 

8.6 

5.23 

70011.9 

8.6 

5.82 

159644.0 

8.9 

5.31 

71082.8 

8.9 

5.91 

162112.7 

9.0 

5.38 

72019.9 

9.0 

5.99 

164313.2 

9.3 

5.46 

73090.9 

9.3 

6.07 

166501.6 

9.6 

5.53 

74027.9 

9.6 

6.16 

168970.3 

9.9 

5.60 

74965.0 

9.9 

6.24 

171164.7 

10.0 

5.67 

75902.0 

10.0 

6.32 

173359.1 

DRAINAGE   WITH   TILES. 


137 


4-INCH    DKAIN-PIPE. 

5-INCH     DKAIN-PIPE. 

FALL 

VELOCITY 

DISCHARGE 

FALL 

TELOCITY 

DISCHARGE 

in 

per    second 

in  gallons 

in 

per    second 

in  gallons 

100  feet. 

In  feet. 

in   24   hours. 

100  feet. 

in  feet. 

in    24   hours. 

ft.   in. 

0.3 

1.08 

43697.6 

ft.  «». 
0.3 

1.13 

99584.2 

0.6 

1.50 

60691.2 

0.6 

1.57 

138362.4 

0.9 

1.83 

74043.2 

0.9 

1.90 

167442.6 

1.0 

2.13 

86181.4 

1.0 

2.20 

193881.0 

1..3 

2.38 

96296.6 

1.3 

2.45 

215912.9 

1.6 

2.61 

105602.6 

1.6 

2.70 

237944.9 

1.9 

2.81 

113694.8 

1.9 

2.90 

255569.5 

2.0 

3.00 

121382.3 

2.0 

3.10 

273195.9 

2.3 

3.19 

129089.9 

2.3 

3.29 

289940.1 

2.6 

3.36 

135948-2 

2.6 

3.46 

304921.9 

2.9 

3.53 

142826.5 

2.9 

3.64 

320784.9 

3.0 

3.68 

148895.7 

3.0 

3.80 

334885.4 

3.3 

3.82 

154560.2 

3.3 

3.96 

348974.8 

3.6 

3.96 

160224.7 

3.6 

4.11 

362204.9 

3.9 

4.10 

165889.2 

3.9 

4.26 

375424.1 

4.0 

4.24 

171553.7 

4.0 

4.40 

387762.1 

4.3 

4.37 

176813.6 

4.3 

4.52 

398337.5 

4.6 

4.50 

182073.5 

4.6 

4.66 

410675.3 

4.9 

4.62 

186928.3 

4.9 

4.78 

421250.6 

5.0 

4.75 

192188.7 

5.0 

4.90 

430825.0 

5.3 

4.86 

196639.4 

5.3 

5.02 

442401.3 

5.6 

4.97 

201090.1 

5.6 

5.14 

452976.6 

5.9 

5.09 

205945.3 

5.9 

5.25 

462670.6 

6.0 

5.20 

210396.0 

6.0 

5.37 

473246.0 

6.3 

5.30 

214442.1 

6.3 

5.49 

483820.4 

6.6 

5.41 

218892.8 

6.6 

5.60 

493514.6 

6.9 

5.51 

222938.8 

6.9 

5.70 

502327.4 

7.0 

5.61 

226984.9 

7.0 

5.80 

511140.2 

7.3 

5.71 

231031.0 

7.3 

5.90 

520052.0 

7.6 

5.81 

235077.1 

7.6 

6.00 

528766.5 

7.9 

5.91 

239123.2 

7.9 

6.10 

537578.7 

8.0 

6.01 

243169.2 

8.0 

6.20 

546391.5 

8.3 

6.10 

246810.7 

8.3 

6.30 

555204.5 

8.6 

6.19 

250452.2 

8.6 

6.40 

5C4017.0 

8.9 

6.28 

255493.7 

8.9 

6.49 

571948.0 

9.0 

6.37 

257735.2 

9.0 

6.58 

579880.0 

9.3 

6.45 

260971.9 

9.3 

6.66 

586930.2 

9.6 

6.54 

264603.1 

9.6 

6.75 

594861.4 

9.9 

6.63 

268254.9 

9.9 

6.84 

602793.2 

10.0 

6.71 

271491.8 

^.0 

6.93 

610723.8 

138 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


8-INCH      DRAIN-PIPE 

Area  :  50.2640  inches. 


FALL 
in 
100  feet. 

VELOCITY 
per    second 
in  feet. 

DISCHARGE 
in  gallons 
in   24   hours. 

FALL 

in 
100  feet. 

VELOCITY 
per    second 
in  feet. 

DlSCHARGK 

in  gallons 
in  24  hours. 

ft.    in. 

0.3 

1.23 

277487.7 

ft.   in. 

5.3 

5.35 

1206959.3 

0.6 

1.65 

372239.7 

5.6 

5.47 

1234031.3 

0.9 

2.01 

453455.7 

5.9 

5.59 

1261103.3 

1.0 

2.33 

.     525647.7 

6.0 

5.71 

1288175.3 

1.3 

2.60 

586559.7 

6.3 

5.83 

1315247.3 

1.6 

2.85 

642959.6 

6.6 

5.95 

1343838.9 

1.9 

3.08 

694847.6 

6.9 

6.07 

1369391.3 

2.0 

3.30 

744479.7 

7.0 

6.17 

1391951.2 

2.3 

3.50 

789599.6 

7.3 

6.27 

1414531.1 

2.6 

3.70 

844719.7 

7.6 

6.39 

1441583.2 

2.9 

3.89 

877583.5 

7.9 

6.50 

1466399.3 

3.0 

4.05 

913679.5 

8.0 

6.60 

1488959.2 

3.3 

4.21 

949775.6 

8.3 

6.70 

1511539.1 

3.6 

4.37 

971658.7 

8.6 

6.80 

1534099.0 

3.9 

4.53 

920447.4 

8.9 

6.90 

1556658.9 

4.0 

4.67 

1055551.4 

9.0 

7.00 

1579199.3 

4.3 

4.81 

1086135.4 

9.3 

7.10 

1601759.2 

4.6 

4.95 

1116718.7 

9.6 

7.20 

1624319.1 

4.9 

5.08 

1146047.4 

9.9 

7.29 

1644622.1 

5.0 

5.22 

1177631.3 

10.0 

7.38 

1664927.1 

HOW   WATER   ENTERS   THE   TILES. 

How  water  enters  the  tiles,  is  a  question  which  all  per- 
sons unaccustomed  to  the  operation  of  tile-draining  usually 
ask  at  the  outset.  In  brief,  it  may  be  answered,  that  it 
enters  both  at  the  joints  and  through  the  pores  of  the 
burnt  clay,  but  mostly  at  the  joints. 

Mr.  Parkes  expresses  the  opinion,  based  upon  careful 
observation,  that  five  hundred  times  as  much  water  enters 
at  the  crevices  as  through  the  pores  of  the  tiles  !  If  this 
be  so,  we  may  as  well,  for  all  practical  purposes,  regard 
the  water  as  all  entering  at  the  joints.  In  several  experi- 
ments which  we  have  attempted,  we  have  found  the 
quantity  of  water  that  enters  through  the  pores  to  be 
quite  too  small  to  be  of  much  practical  account. 

Tiles  differ  so  much  in  porosity,  that  it  is  difficult  to 


DRAINAGE    WITH   TILES.  139 

make  experiments  that  can  be  satisfactory — soft-burnt  tiles 
being,  like  pale  bricks,  quite  pervious,  and  hard-burnt  tiles 
being  nearly  or  quite  impervious.  The  amount  of  pressure 
upon  the  clay  in  moulding  also  affects  the  density  and 
porosity  of  tiles. 

Water  should  enter  at  the  bottom  of  the  tiles,  and  not  at 
the  top.  It  is  a  well-known  fact  in  draining,  that  the  deep- 
est drain  flows  first  and  longest.  A  familiar  illustration  will 
make  this  point  evident.  If  a  cask  or  deep  box  be  filled 
with  sand,  with  one  hole  near  the  bottom  and  another  half 
way  to  the  top,  these  holes  will  represent  the  tiles  in  a 
drain.  If  water  be  poured  into  the  sand,  it  will  pass 
downward  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessel,  and  will  not  flow 
cut  of  either  hole  till  the  sand  be  saturated  up  to  the 
lower  hole,  and  then  it  will  flow  out  there.  If,  now,  watei 
be  poured  in  faster  than  the  lower  hole  can  discharge  it, 
the  vessel  will  be  filled  higher,  till  it  will  run  out  at  both 
holes.  It  is  manifest,  however,  that  it  will  first  cease  to 
flow  from  the  upper  orifice.  There  is  in  the  soil  a  line  of 
water,  called  the  "  water-line,"  or  "  water-table  ;"  and  this, 
in  drained  land,  is  at  about  the  level  of  the  bottom  of  the 
tiles.  As  the  rain  falls  it  descends,  as  in  the  vessel ;  and 
as  the  water  rises,  it  enters  the  tiles  at  the  bottom,  and 
never  at  the  top,  unless  there  is  more  than  can  pass  out 
of  the  soil  by  the  lower  openings  (the  crevices  and  pores) 
into  the  tiles.  It  is  well  always  to  interrupt  the  direct 
descent  of  water  by  percolation  from  the  surface  to  the  top 
of  the  tiles,  because,  in  passing  so  short  a  distance  in  the 
soil,  the  water  is  not  sufficiently  filtered,  especially  in  soil 
so  recently  disturbed,  but  is  likely  to  carry  with  it  not 
only  valuable  elements  of  fertility,  but  also  particles  of 
sand,  which  may  obstruct  the  drain.  This  is  prevented 
by  placing  above  the  tiles  (after  they  are  covered  a  few 
inches  with  gravel,  sand,  or  other  porous  soil)  compact 
clay,  if  convenient.  If  not,  a  furrow  each  side  of  the 


14:0  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

drain,  or  a  heaping-up  of  the  soil  over  the  drain,  when 
finished,  will  turn  aside  the  surface-water,  and  prevent 
such  injury. 

In  the  estimates  as  to  the  area  of  the  openings  between 
pipes,  it  should  be  considered  that  the  spaces  between  the 
pipes  are  not,  in  fact,  clean  openings  of  one-tenth  of  an 
inch,  but  are  partially  closed  by  earthy  particles,  and  that 
water  enters  them  by  no  means  as  rapidly  as  it  would 
enter  the  clean  pipes  before  they  are  covered.  Although 
the  rain-fall  in  England  is  much  less  in  quantity  and 
much  more  regular  than  in  this  country,  yet  it  is  believed 
that  the  use  of  two-inch  pipes  will  be  found  abundantly 
sufficient  for  the  admission  and  conveyance  of  any  quan- 
tity of  water  that  it  may  be  necessary  to  carry  off  by 
drainage  in  common  soils.  In  extraordinary  cases,  as 
where  the  land  drained  is  a  swamp,  or  reservoir  for  water 
which  falls  on  the  hills  around,  larger  pipes  must  be  used. 

In  many  places  in  England  "  tops  and  bottoms,"  or 
horse-shoe  tiles,  are  still  preferred  by  farmers,  upon  the 
idea  that  they  admit  the  water  more  readily  ;  but  their 
use  is  continued  only  by  those  who  have  never  made  trial 
of  pipes.  No  scientific  drainer  uses  any  but  pipes  in 
England,  and  the  million  of  acres  well  drained  with  them, 
is  pretty  good  evidence  of  their  sufficiency.  In  this  coun- 
try, horse-shoe  tiles  have  been  much  used  in  Western  New 
York,  and  have  been  found  to  answer  a  good  purpose  ;  and 
BO  it  may  be  said  of  the  sole-pipes.  Indeed,  it  is  believed 
that  no  instance  is  to  be  found  on  record  in  America  oi 
the  failure  of  tile  drains,  from  the  inability  of  the  water  to 
gain  admission  at  the  joints. 

It  may  be  interesting  in  this  connection  to  state,  that 
water  is  815  times  heavier  than  air.  Here  is  a  drain  at  lour 
feet  depth  in  the  ground,  filled  only  with  air,  and  open  at  the 
end  so  that  the  air  can  go  out.  Above  this  open  space  is  foui 
feet  of  earth  saturated  with  water.  What  is  the  pressure  of 
the  water  upon  the  tiles  ? 


DRAINAGE   1VTTH   TILES.  141 

Mr.  Thomas  Arkell,  in  a  communication  to  the  Society 
of  Arts,  in  England,  says — 

"  The  pressure  due  to  a  head  of  water  four  or  five  feet,  may 
be  imagined  from  the  force  with  which  water  will  come  through 
the  crevices  of  a  hatch  with  that  depth  of  water  above  it.  Now,  there 
is  the  same  pressure  of  water  to  enter  the  vacuum  in  the  pipe-drain  as 
there  is  against  the  hatches,  supposing  the  land  to  be  full  of  water  to 
the  surface." 

It  is  difficult  to  demonstrate  the  truth  of  this  theory ; 
but  the  same  opinion  has  been  expressed  to  the  writer  by 
persons  of  learning  and  of  practical  skill,  based  upon  ob- 
servations as  to  the  entrance  of  water  into  gas  pipes,  from 
which  it  is  almost,  if  not  quite,  impossible  to  exclude  it  by 
the  most  perfect  joints  in  iron  pipes.  Whatever  be  the 
theory  as  to  pressure,  or  the  difficulties  as  to  the  water 
percolating  through  compact  soils  to  the  tiles,  there  will 
be  no  doubt  left  on  the  mind  of  any  one,  after  one  experi- 
ment tried  in  the  field,  that,  in  common  cases,  all  the  sur- 
plus water  that  reaches  the  tiles  is  freely  admitted.  A 
gentleman,  who  has  commenced  draining  his  farm,  recently, 
in  Xew  Hampshire,  expressed  to  the  author  his  opinion, 
that  tiles  in  his  land  admitted  the  water  as  freely  as  a  hole 
of  a  similar  size  to  the  bore  of  the  tile  would  admit  it,  if 
:t  could  be  kept  open  through  the  soil  without  the  tile. 

DURABILITY    OF   TILE   DRAINS. 

How  long  will  they  last  ?  This  is  the  first  and  most  im- 
portant question.  Men,  who  have  commenced  with  open 
ditches,  and,  having  become  disgusted  with  the  defor- 
mity, the  inconvenience,  and  the  inefficiency  of  them, 
have  then  tried  bushes,  and  boards,  and  turf,  and  found 
them,  too,  perishable ;  and  again  have  used  stones,  and 
after  a  time  seen  them  fail,  through  obstructions'  caused 
by  moles  or  frost — these  men  have  the  right  to  a  well-con- 
fiidered  answer  to  this  question. 


142  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

The  foolish  fellow  in  the  Greek  Reader,  who,  having 
heard  that  -%  crow  would  live  a  hundred  years,  pui  chased 
one  to  verLy  the  saying,  probably  did  not  live  long  enough 
to  ascertain  that  it  was  true.  How  long  a  properly  laid 
tile-drain  of  hard-burnt  tiles  will  endure,  has  not  been 
definitely  ascertained,  but  it  is  believed  that  it  will  outlast 
the  life  of  him  who  lays  it. 

No  tiles  have  been  long  enough  laid  in  the  United  States 
to  test  this  question  by  experience,  and  in  England  no  fur- 
ther result  seems  to  have  been  arrived  at,  than  that  the 
work  is  a  permanent  improvement. 

In  another  part  of  this  treatise,  may  be  found  some  ac 
count  of  Land  Drainage  Companies,  and  of  Government 
loans  in  aid  of  improvements  by  drainage  in  Great  Bri- 
tain. One  of  these  acts  provides  for  a  charge  on  the  land 
for  such  improvements,  to  be  paid  in  full  in  fifty  years. 
That  is  to  say,  the  expense  of  the  drainage  is  an  incum- 
brance  like  a  mortgage  on  the  land,  at  a  certain  rate  of 
interest,  and  the  tenant  or  occupant  of  the  land,  each  year 
pays  the  interest  and  enough  more  to  discharge  the  debt 
in  just  fifty  years.  Thus,  it  is  assumed  by  the  Govern- 
ment, that  the  improvement  will  last  fifty  years  in  its  full 
operation,  because  the  last  year  of  the  fifty  pays  precisely 
the  same  as  every  other  year. 

It  may  therefore  be  considered  as  the  settled  conviction 
of  all  branches  of  the  British  government,  and  of  all  the 
best-informed,  practical  land-drainers  in  that  country,  that 

TILE-DRAINAGE  WILL    ENDURE   FIFTY    YEARS    AT   LEAST,  if  pl'O- 

perly  executed. 

This  is  long  enough  to  satisfy  any  American ;  for  the 
migratory  habits  of  our  citizens,  and  the  constant  changes 
of  cultivated  fields  into  village  and  city  lots,  prevent  our 
imagination  even  conceiving  the  idea  that  we  or  our  pos- 
terity can  remain  for  half  a  century  upon  the  san.e  farm. 

It  is  much  easier,  however,  to  lay  tile-drains  so  that 


DRAINAGE    WITH    TILES.  143 

they  will  not  be  of  use  half  of  fifty  years,  than  to  make 
them  permanent  in  their  effect.  Tile-drainage,  it  cannot 
be  too  much  enforced,  is  an  operation  requiring  great  care 
and  considerable  skill — altogether  more  care  and  skill  than 
our  common  laborers,  or  even  most  of  our  farmers,  are 
accustomed  to  exercise  in  their  farm  operations. 

A  blunder  in  draining,  like  the  blunder  of  a  physician, 
may  be  soon  concealed  by  the  grass  that  grows  over  it, 
but  can  never  be  corrected.  Drainage  is  a  new  art  in 
this  country,  and  tile-making  is  a  new  art.  "Without 
good,  hard-burnt  tiles,  no  care  or  skill  can  make  permanent 
work. 

Tile-drainage  will  endure  so  long  as  the  tiles  last,  if  the 
work  be  properly  done. 

There  is  no  reason  why  a  tile  should  not  last  in  the 
ground  as  long  as  a  brick  will  last.  Bricks  will  fall  to 
pieces  in  the  ground  in  a  very  short  time  if  not  hard- 
burnt,  while  hard-burnt  bricks  of  good  clay  will  last  as 
long  as  granite. 

Tiles  must  be  hard-burnt  in  order  to  endure.  But  this 
is  not  all.  Drains  fail  from  various  other  causes  than  the 
crumbling  of  the  tiles.  They  are  frequently  obstructed  by 
mice,  moles,  frogs,  and  vermin  of  all  kinds,  if  not  pro- 
tected at  the  outlet.  They  are  often  destroyed  by  the 
treading  of  cattle,  and  by  the  deposit  of  mud  at  the  out- 
let, through  insufficient  care.  They  are  liable  to  be  filled 
with  sand,  through  want  of  care  in  protecting  the  joints 
in  laying,  and  through  want  of  collars,  and  other  means 
of  keeping  them  in  line.  They  are  liable,  too,  to  fill  up  by 
deposits  of  sand  and  the  like,  by  being  laid  lower  in  some 
places  than  the  parts  nearer  the  outlet,  so  that  the  slack 
places  catch  and  retain  whatever  is  brought  down,  till  the 
pipe  is  filled. 

FROST  is  an  enemy  which  in  this  country  we  have  to 


144:  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

contend  with,  more  than  in  any  other,  where  tile-drainage 
has  been  much  practiced. 

Upon  all  these  points,  remarks  will  be  found  under  the 
appropriate  heads;  and  these  suggestions  are  repeated 
here,  because  we  know  that  haste  and  want  of  skill  are 
likely  to  do  much  injury  to  the  cause  which  we  advocate. 
Any  work  that  requires  only  energy  and  progress,  is  safe 
in  American  hands ;  but  cautious  and  slow  operations  are 
by  no  means  to  their  taste. 

Dickens  says,  that  on  railways  and  coaches,  wherever 
in  England  they  say,  "  All  right,"  the  Americans  use,  in- 
stead, the  phrase,  "  Go  ahead."  In  tile-drainage,  the 
motto,  "  All  right,"  will  be  found  far  more  safe  than  the 
motto,  "  Go  ahead." 

Instances  are  given  in  England  of  drains  laid  with  hand- 
made tiles,  which  have  operated  well  for  thirty  years,  and 
have  not  yet  failed. 

Mr.  Parkes  informs  us :  "  That,  about  1804,  pipe-tiles 
made  tapering,  with  one  end  entering  the  other,  and  two 
inches  in  the  smallest  point,  were  laid  down  in  the  park 
now  possessed  by  Sir  Thomas  Whichcote,  Aswarby,  Lin- 
colnshire, and  that  they  still  act  well." 

Stephens  gives  the  following  instance  of  the  durability 
of  bricks  used  in  draining  : 

'••  Of  the  durability  of  common  brick,  when  used  in  drains,  there  is  a 
remarkable  instance  mentioned  by  Mr.  George  Guthrie,  factor  to  the 
Earl  of  Stair  or  Galhoun,  Wigtonshire.  In  the  execution  of  modern 
draining  on  that  estate,  some  brick-drains,  on  being  intersected,  emitted 
water  very  freely.  According  to  documents  which  refer  to  these  drains, 
it  appears  that  they  had  been  formed  by  the  celebrated  Marshal,  Earl 
Stair,  upwards  of  a  hundred  years  ago.  They  were  found  between  the 
T'igetable  mould  and  the  clay  upon  which  it  rested,  between  the  '  wet 
and  the  dry,'  as  the  country  phrase  has  it,  and  about  thirty-one  inches 
below  the  surface.  They  presented  two  forms — one  consisting  of  two 
bricks  set  asunder  on  edge,  and  the  other  two  laid  lengthways  across 
them,  leaving  betweer.  them  an  opening  of  four  inches  square  for  water, 


DRAINAGE    WITH    TILES.  145 

but  having  no  soles.  The  bricks  had  not  sunk  in  the  least  through  the 
sandy  clay  bottom  upon  which  they  rested,  aa  they  were  three  inches 
broad.  The  other  form  wras  of  two  bricks  laid  side  by  side,  as  a  sole, 
with  two  others  built  or  laid  on  each  other,  at  both  sides,  upon  the  solid 
ground,  and  covered  with  flat  stones,  the  building  being  packed  on  each 
side  of  the  drain  with  broken  bricks.''7 

In  our  chapter  upon  the  "  Obstruction  of  Drains,"  the 
various  causes  which  operate  against  the  permanency  of 
drains,  are  more  fully  considered. 
7 


i  1 6  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTEE    YII. 

DIRECTION,    DISTANCE,    AND    DEPTH    OF   DRAINft- 

DIRECTION  OP  DRAINS. — Whence  comes  the  Water? — Inclination  cf  Strata.— 
Drains  across  the  Slope  let  Water  out  as  well  as  Keceive  it. — Defence 
against  Water  from  Higher  Land. — Open  Ditches. — Headers. — Silt-basins. 

DISTANCE  OF  DRAINS. — Depends  on  Soil,  Depth,  Climate,  Prices,  System. — 
Conclusions  as  to  Distance. 

DEPTH  OF  DRAINS. — Greatly  Increases  Cost. — Shallow  Drains  first  tried  in 
England. — 10,000  Miles  of  Shallow  Drains  laid  in  Scotland  by  way  of  Edu- 
cation.— Drains  must  be  below  Subsoil  plow,  and  Frost. — Effect  of  Frost 
on  Tiles  and  Aqueducts. 

DIRECTION    OF    DKAESTS. 

Whether  drains  should  run  up  and  down  the  slope  of 
the  hill,  or  directly  across  it,  or  in  a  diagonal  line  as  a 
compromise  between  the  first  two,  are  questions  which 
beginners  in  the  art  and  mystery  of  drainage  usually 
discuss  with  great  zeal.  It  seems  so  plain  to  one  man,  at 
the  first  glance,  that,  in  order  to  catch  the  water  that  is 
running  down  under  the  soil  upon  the  subsoil,  from  the 
top  of  the  hill  to  the  bottom,  you  must  cut  a  ditch  across 
the  current,  that  he  sees  no  occasion  to  examine  the  ques- 
tion farther.  Another,  whose  idea  is,  to  catch  the  water 
in  his  drain  before  it  rises  to  the  surface,  as  it  is  passing 
up  from  below  or  running  along  on  the  subsoil,  and  keep 
it  from  rising  higher  than  the  bottom  of  his  ditch,  thinks 
it  quite  as  obvious  that  the  drains  should  run  up  and  down 
the  slope,  that  the  water,  once  entering,  may  remain  in  the 
drain,  going  directly  down  hill  to  the  outlet.  A  third 
hits  on  the  Keythorpe  system,  and  regarding  the  water  as 


DIRECTION   OF   DRAINS.  147 

flowing  down  the  slope,  under  the  soil,  in  certain  natural 
channels  in  the  subsoil,  fancies  they  may  best  be  cut  off 
by  drains,  in  the  nature  of  mains,  running  diagonally  across 
the  slope. 

These  different  ideas  of  men,  if  examined,  vill  be  found 
to  result  mainly  from  their  different  notions  of  the  under- 
ground circulation  of  water.  In  considering  the  Theory 
of  Moisture,  an  attempt  was  made  to  suggest  the  different 
causes  of  the  wetness  of  land. 

To  drain  land  effectually,  we  must  have  a  correct  idea 
of  the  sources  of  the  water  that  makes  the  particular  field 
too  wet ;  whether  it  falls  from  the  clouds  directly  upon  it ; 
or  whether  it  falls  on  land  situated  above  it  and  sloping 
towards  it,  so  that  the  water  runs  down,  as  upon  a  roof, 
from  other  fields  or  slopes  to  our  own  ;  or  whether  it  gushes 
up  in  springs  which  find  vent  in  particular  spots,  and  so 
is  diffused  through  the  soil. 

If  we  have  only  to  take  care  of  the  water  that  falls  on 
our  own  field,  from  the  clouds,  that  is  quite  a  different 
matter  from  draining  the  wrhole  adjoining  region,  and 
requires  a  different  mode  of  operation.  If  your  field  is  in 
the  middle,  or  at  the  foot,  of  an  undrained  slope,  from 
which  the  water  runs  on  the  surface  over  your  land,  or  soaks 
through  it  toward  some  stream  or  swamp  below,  provi- 
sion must  be  made  not  only  for  drainage  of  your  own 
field,  but  also  for  partial  drainage  of  your  neighbor's  above, 
or  at  least  for  defence  against  his  surplus  of  water. 

The  first,  and  leading  idea  to  be  kept  in  mind,  as  gov- 
erning this  question  of  the  direction  of  drains,  is  the  simple 
fact  that  water  runs  down  hill ;  or,  to  express  the  fact  more 
scientifically, "water  constantly  seeks  a  lower  level  by  the 
force  of  gravitation,  and  the  whole  object  of  drains  is  to 
open  lower  and  still  lower  passages,  into  which  the  water 
may  fall  lower  and  lower  until  it  is  discharged  from  our 
field  at  a  safe  depth. 


14:8  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

"Water  goes  down,  then,  by  its  own  weight,  unless  there 
is  something  through  which  it  cannot  readily  pass,  to 
bring  it  out  at  the  surface.  It  will  go  into  the  drains, 
only  because  they  are  lower  than  the  land  drained.  It 
will  never  go  upward  to  find  a  drain,  and  it  will  go 
toward  a  drain  the  more  readily,  in  proportion  as  the 
descent  is  more  steep  toward  it. 

To  decide  properly  what  direction  a  drain  should  have, 
it  is  necessary,  then,  to  have  a  definite?  and  a  correct  idea 
as  to  what  office  the  drain  is  to  perform,  what  water  is  to 
fall  into  it,  what  land  it  is  to  drain. 

Suppose  the  general  plan  to  be,  to  lay  drains  forty  feet 
apart,  and  four  feet  deep  over  the  field,  and  the  question 
now  to  be  determined,  as  to  the  direction,  whether  across, 
or  up  and  down  the  slope,  there  being  fall  enough  to  ren- 
der either  course  practicable  The  first  point  of  inquiry 
is,  what  is  expected  of  each  drain  ?  How  much  and  what 
land  should  it  drain?  The  general  answer  must  be,  forty 
feet  breadth,  either  up  and  down  the  slope,  or  across  it, 
according  to  the  direction.  But  we  must  be  more  definite 
in  our  inquiry  than  even  this.  From  what  forty  feet  of 
land  will  the  water  fall  into  the  drain  ?  Obviously,  from 
some  land  in  which  the  water  is  higher  than  the  bottom 
of  the  drain. 

If,  then,  the  drain  run  directly  across  the  slope,  most  of 
the  water  that  can  fall  into  it,  must  come  from  the  forty 
feet  breadth  of  land  between  the  drain  in  question,  and 
the  drain  next  above  it.  If  the  water  were  falling  on  an 
impervious  surface,  it  would  all  run  according  to  the 
slope  of  the  surface,  in  which  case,  by  the  way,  no  drains 
but  those  across,  could  catch  any  of  it  except  what  fell 
upon  the  drains.  But  the  whole  theory  of  drainage  is 
otherwise,  and  is  based  on  the  idea  that  we  change  the 
course  of  the  underground  flow,  by  drawing  out  the  water 


DIRECTION   OF   DKAINS.  149 

at  given  points  by  our  drains ;  or,  in  other  words,  that 
"the  water  seeks  the  lowest  level  in  all  directions." 

Upon  the  best  view  the  writer  has  been  able  to  take  of 
the  two  systems  as  to  the  direction  of  drains,  there  is  but 
a  very  small  advantage  in  theory  in  favor  of  either  over 
the  other,  in  soil  which  is  homogeneous.  But  it  must  be 
borne  in  mind  that  homogeneous  soil  is  rather  the  excep- 
tion in  nature  than  the  rule. 

Without  undertaking  to  advance  or  defend  any  peculiar 
geological  views  of  the  structure  of  the  earth,  or  of  the 
depositions  or  formations  that  compose  its  surface,  it  miiy 
be  said,  that  very  often  the  first  four  feet  of  subsoil  is  com- 
posed of  strata,  or  layers  of  earth  of  varying  porosity. 

Beneath  sand  will  be  found  a  stratum  of  clay,  or  of  corn- 
pact  or  cemented  gravel,  and  frequently  these  strata  are 
numerous  and  thin.  Indeed,  if  there  be  not  some  stratum 
below  the  soil,  which  impedes  the  passage  of  water,  it 
would  pass  downward,  and  the  land  would  need  no  arti- 
ficial drainage.  Quite  often  it  will  be  found  that  the  dip 
or  inclination  of  the  various  Urata  below  the  soil  is  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  surface. 

The  surface  may  have  a  considerable  slope,  while  the 
lower  strata  lie  nearly  level,  as  if  they  had  been  cut 
through  by  artificial  grading. 

The  following  figure  from  the  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture, 
with  the  explanation,  fully  illustrates  this  idea. 

"  In  many  subsoils  there  are  thin  partings,  or  layers,  of  porous  mate- 
rials, interspersed  between  the  strata,  which,  although  not  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  give  rise  to  actual  springs,  yet  exude  sufficient  water  lo 
indicate  their  presence.  These  pai  tings  occasionally  crop  out,  and  cive 
rise  to  those  damp  spots,  which  are  to  be  seen  diversifying  ths  surface 
of  fields,  when  the  drying  breezes  of  Spring  have  begun  to  act  upon 
them.  In  the  following  cut.  the  light  lines  represent  such  partings. 

"  Now,  it  will  be  evident,  in  draining  such  land,  that  if  the  drains 
be  disposed  in  a  direction  transverse  or  oblique  to  the  slope,  it  will  often 


150  FAEM    DEAINAGE. 

happen  that  the  drains,  no  matter  how  skillfully  planned,  will  not  reach 
these  partings  at  all,  as  at  A.  In  this  case,  the  water  will  continue 
to  flow  on  in  its  accustomed  channel,  and  discharge  its  waters  at  B 


Fig.  34— DEATNS  ACROSS  THE  SLOPE. 

"Bui  again,  even  though  it  does  reach  ihese  partings,  as  at  C.  a  con- 
siderable portion  of  water  will  escape  from  the  drain  itself,  and  flow 
to  the  lower  level  of  its  old  point  of  discharge  at  D.  Whereas,  a  drain 
cut  in  the  line  of  the  slope,  as  from  D  to  E,  intersects  all  these  partings, 
and  furnishes  an  outlet  to  them  at  a  lower  level  than  their  old  ones.'' 

These  reasons  are,  it  is  true,  applicable  only  to  land  of 
peculiar  structure  ;  but  there  are  reasons  for  selecting  the 
line  of  greatest  fall  for  the  direction  of  drains  which  are 
applicable  to  all  lands  alike. 

"  The  line  of  the  greatest  fall  is  the  only  line  in  which 
a  drain  is  relatively  lower  than  the  land  on  either  side  of 
it."  Whether  we  regard  the  surplus  water  as  having 
recently  fallen  upon  the  field,  and  as  being  stopped  near 
the  surface  by  an  impervious  stratum,  or  as  brought  down 
on  these  strata  from  above,  we  have  it  to  be  disposed  of 
as  it  rests  upon  this  stratum,  and  is  borne  out  by  it  to  the 
surface. 

If  there  is  a  decided  dip,  or  inclination,  of  this  stratum 
outward  down  the  slope,  it  is  manifest  that  the  water 
cannot  pass  backward  to  a  cross  drain  higher  up  the  slope. 
The  course  of  the  water  must  be  downward  upon  the 
stratum  on  which  it  lies,  and  so  all  between  two  cross 


DIRECTION   OF   DRAINS.  151 

drains  must  pass  to  the  lower  one.  The  upper  drain  could 
take  very  little,  if  any,  and  the  greater  the  inclination  of 
this  stratum,  the  less  could  flow  backward. 

But  in  such  case  a  drain  down  the  slope  gives  to  the 
water  borne  up  by  these  strata,  an  outlet  of  the  depth  of 
the  drain.  If  the  drain  be  four  feet  deep,  it  cuts  the 
water-bearing  strata  each  at  that  depth,  and  takes  off  the 
water. 

In  these  cases,  the  different  layers  of  clay  or  other  im- 
pervious "  partings,"  are  like  the  steps  of  a  huge  stair- 
way, with  the  soil  filling  them  up  to  a  regular  grade. 
The  ditch  cuts  through  these  steps,  letting  the  water  that 
rests  on  them  fall  off  at  the  ends,  instead  of  running  over 
the  edges.  Drains  across  the  slope  have  been  significantly 
termed  "  mere  catch-waters." 

If  we  wish  to  use  water  to  irrigate  lands,  we  carefully 
conduct  it  along  the  surface  across  the  slope,  allowing  it 
to  flow  over  and  to  soak  through  the  soil.  If  we  desire  to 
carry  the  same  water  off  the  field  as  speedily  as  possible, 
we  should  cfny  our  surface  ditch  directly  down  the 
slope. 

Now,  looking  at  the  operation  of  drains  across  the  slope, 
and  supposing  that  each  drain  is  draining  the  breadth 
next  above  it,  we  will  suppose  the  drain  to  be  running  full 
of  water.  What  is  there  to  prevent  the  water  from  pass- 
ing out  of  that  drain  in  its  progress,  at  every  point  of  the 
tiles,  and  so  saturating  the  breadth  below  it  ?  Drain- 
pipes afford  the  same  facility  for  water  to  soak  out  at 
the  lowe*  side,  as  to  enter  on  the  upper,  and  there  is 
the  same  law  of  gravitation  to  operate  in  each  case.  Mr. 
Dentori  gives  instances  in  which  he  has  observed,  where 
drains  were  carried  across  the  slope,  in  Warwickshire, 
lines  of  moisture  at  a  regular  distance  below  the  drains. 
He  could  ascertain,  he  says,  the  depth  of  the  drain  itself, 
by  taking  the  difference  of  height  between  the  line  of  the 


152  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

drain  at  the  surface,  and  that  of  the  line  of  moisture  be- 
neath it.     He  says  again : 

"  I  recently  had  an  opportunity,  in  Scotland,  of  guagirig  the  quantity 
of  water  traveling  along  an  important  drain  carried  obliquely  across  the 
fall,  when  I  ascertained  with  certainty,  that,  although  the  land  through 
which  it  passed  was  comparatively  full  of  water,  the  drain  actually  lost 
more  than  it  gained  in  a  passage  of  several  chains  through  it." 

So  far  as  authority  goes,  there  seems,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  some  advocates  of  the  Key  thorpe  system,  of  which 
an  account  has  been  given,  to  be  very  little  difference 
of  opinion.  Mr.  Denton  says  : 

"  With  respect  to  the  direction  of  drains,  I  believe  very  little  differ- 
ence of  opinion  exists.  All  the  most  successful  drainers  concur  in  the 
line  of  the  steepest  descent,  as  essential  to  effective  and  economical 
drainage.  Certain  exceptions  are  recognized  in  the  West  of  England  , 
but  I  believe  it  will  be  found,  as  practice  extends  in  that  quarter,  that 
the  exceptions  have  been  allowed  in  error." 

In  another  place,  he  says : 

<:  The  very  general  concurrence  in  the  adoption  of  the  line  of  greatest 
descent,  as  the  proper  course  for  the  minor  drains  in  soils  free  from 
rock,  would  almost  lead  me  to  declare  this  as  an  incontrovertible  prin- 
ciple." 

Allusion  has  been  made  to  cases  where  we  may  have  to 
defend  ourselves  from  the  flow  of  water  from  higher  un- 
drained  lands  of  our  neighbor.  To  arrest  the  flow  of  mere 
surface  water,  an  open  ditch,  or  catch-water,  is  the  most 
effectual,  as  well  as  the  most  obvious  mode.  There  are 
many  instances  in  New  England,  where  lands  upon  the 
lowest  slopes  of  hills  are  overflowed  by  water  which  fell 
high  up  upon  the  hill,  and,  after  passing  downward  till 
arrested  by  rock  formation,  is  borne  out  again  to  the  sur- 
face, in  such  quantity  as  to  produce,  just  at  the  foot  of  the, 
hill,  almost  a  swamp.  This  land  is  usually  rich  from  the 
wash  of  the  hills,  but  full  of  cold  water. 


DIRECTION   OF  DRAINS.  153 

To  effect  perfect  drainage  of  a  portion  of  this  land, 
which  we  will  suppose  to  be  a  gentle  slope,  the  first  object 
must  be  to  cut  off  the  flow  of  water  upon  or  near  the 
surface.  An  open  ditch  across  the  top  would  most  cer- 
tainly effect  this  object,  and  it  may  be  doubtful  whether 
any  other  drain  would  be  sufficient.  This  would  depend 
upon  the  quantity  of  water  flowing  down.  If  the  quan- 
tity be  very  great  at  times,  a  part  of  it  would  be  likely 
to  flow  across  the  top  of  an  under-drain,  from  not  having 
time  to  percolate  downward  into  it. 

In  all  cases,  it  is  advised,  where  our  work  stops  upon  a 
slope,  to  introduce  a  cross-drain,  connecting  the  tops  of  all 
the  minor-drains.  This  cross-drain  is  called  a  header. 
The  object  of  it  is  to  cut  off  the  water  that  may  be  pass- 
ing along  in  the  subsoil  down  the  slope,  and  which  would 
otherwise  be  likely  to  pass  downward  between  the  system 
of  drains  to  a  considerable  distance  before  finding  them. 
If  we  suppose  the  ground  saturated  with  water,  and  our 
drains  running  up  the  slope  and  stopping  at  4  feet  depth, 
with  no  header  connecting  them,  they,  in  effect,  stop 
against  4  feet  head  of  water,  and  in  order  to  drain  the 
land  as  far  up  as  they  go,  must  not  only  take  their  fair 
proportion  of  water  which  lies  between  them,  but  must 
draw  down  this  4  feet  head  beyond  them.  This  they  can- 
not do,  because  the  water  from  a  higher  source,  with  the 
aid  of  capillary  attraction,  and  the  friction  or  resistance 
met  with  in  percolation,  will  keep  up  this  head  of  water 
far  above  the  drained  level. 

In  railway  cuttings,  and  the  like,  we  often  see  a  slope 
of  this  kind  cut  through,  without  drying  the  land  above 
the  cutting ;  and  if  the  slope  be  disposed  in  alternate 
layers  of  sand  or  gravel,  and  clay,  the  water  will  continue 
to  flow  out  high  up  on  the  perpendicular  bank.  Even  in 
porous  soils  of  homogeneous  character,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  head  of  water,  if  we  may  use  the  expression,  is 
7* 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 

affected  but  a  short  distance  by  a  drain  across  its  flow. 
Indeed,  the  whole  theory  as  to  the  distance  of  drains 
apart,  rests  upon  the  idea,  that  the  limit  to  which  drains 
may  be  expected  effectually  to  operate,  is  at  most  but  two 
or  three  rods. 

"Whether,  in  a  particular  case,  a  header  alone  will  be 
sufficient  to  cut  off  the  flow  of  water  from  the  higher 
land,  or  whether,  in  addition  to  the  header,  an  open 
catch-water  may  be  required,  must  depend  upon  the 
quantity  of  water  likely  to  flow  through  or  upon  the  land. 
An  under-drain  might  be  expected  to  absorb  any  moder- 
ate quantity  of  what  may  be  termed  drainage-water,  but 
it  cannot  stop  a  river  or  mill-stream;  and  if  the  earth 
above  the  tiles  be  compact,  even  water  flowing  through 
the  soil  with  rapidity,  might  pass  across  it.  If  there  is 
reason  to  apprehend  this,  an  open  ditch  might  be  added 
to  the  header ;  or,  if  this  is  not  considered  sufficiently 
scientific  or  in  good  taste,  a  tile-drain  of  sufficient  capa- 
city may  be  laid,  with  the  ditch  above  it  carefully  packed 
with  small  stones  to  the  top  of  the  ground.  Such  a  drain 
would  be  likely  to  receive  sand  and  other  obstructing  sub- 
stances, as  well  as  a  large  amount  of  water,  and  should, 
for  both  reasons,  be  carried  off*  independently  of  the  small 
drains,  which  would  thus  be  left  to  discharge  their  legiti- 
mate service. 

Where  it  is  thought  best  to  connect  an  open,  or  surface 
drain,  with  a  covered  drain,  it  will  add  much  to  its  secu- 
rity against  silt  and  other  obstructions,  to  interpose  a  trap 
or  silt-basin  at  the  junction,  and  thus  allow  the  water  to 
pass  off  comparatively  clean.  Where,  however,  there  is 
a  large  flow  of  water  into  a  basin,  it  will  be  kept  so  much 
in  motion  as  to  carry  along  with  it  a  large  amount  of 
earth,  and  thus  endanger  the  drain  below,  unless  it  be 
very  large. 


DISTANCE   OF   DRAINS.  155 

DISTANCES    APART,    OR   FREQUENCY   OF   DRAINS. 

The  reader,  who  has  studied  carefully  the  rival  systems 
of  "deep  drainage"  and  "thorough  drainage,"  lias  seen 
that  the  distance  of  drains  apart,  is  closely  connected  with 
that  controversy.  The  greatest  variety  of  opinion  is  ex- 
pressed by  different  writers  as  to  the  proper  distances, 
ranging  all  the  way  from  ten  feet  apart  to  seventy,  or 
even  more. 

Many  English  writers  have  ranged  themselves  on  one 
side  or  the  other  of  some  sharp  controversy  as  to  the 
merits  of  some  peculiar  system.  Some  distinguished  geol- 
ogist has  discovered,  or  thinks  he  has,  some  new  law  of 
creation  by  which  he  can  trace  the  underground  currents 
of  wrater;  or  some  noble  noble  lord  has  "patronized"  into 
notice  some  caprice  of  an  aspiring  engineer,  and  straight- 
way the  kingdom  is  convulsed  with  contests  to  set  up  or 
cast  down  these  idols.  By  careful  observation,  it  is  said, 
we  may  find  "  sermons  in  stones,  and  good  in  everything ;" 
and,  standing  aloof  from  all  exciting  controversies,  we 
may  often  profit,  not  only  by  the  science  and  wisdom  of 
our  brethren,  but  also  by  their  errors  and  excesses.  If, 
by  the  help  of  the  successes  and  failures  of  our  English 
neighbors,  we  shall  succeed  in  attaining  to  their  present 
standard  of  perfection  in  agriculture,  we  shall  certainly 
make  great  advances  upon  our  present  position. 

As  the  distances  of  drains  apart,  depend  manifestly  on 
many  circumstances,  which  may  widely  vary  in  the  diver- 
sity of  soil,  climate,  and  cost  of  labor  and  materials  to  be 
found  in  the  United  States,  it  will  be  convenient  to 
arrange  our  remarks  on  the  subject  under  appropriate 
heads. 

DISTANCES    DEPEND   UPON   THE   NATURE   OF   THE   SOIL. 

"Water  runs  readily  through  sand  or  gravel.  In  such 
soils  it  easily  seeks  and  finds  its  level.  If  it  be  drawn 


156  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

out  at  one  point,  it  tends  towards  that  point  from  all 
directions.  In  a  free,  open  sand,  you  may  draw  ont  all 
the  water  at  one  opening,  almost  as  readily  as  from  an 
open  pond. 

Yet,  even  such  sands  may  require  draining.  A  body  of 
sandy  soil  frequently  lies  not  only  upon  clay,  but  in  a 
basin ;  so  that,  if  the  sand  were  removed,  a  pond  wo~- ... 
remain.  In  such  a  case,  a  few  deep  drains,  rightly  placed, 
might  be  sufficient.  This,  however,  is  a  case  not  often 
met  with,  though  open,  sandy  soil  upon  clay  is  a  common 
formation. 

Then  there  is  the  other  extreme  of  compact  clay, 
through  which  water  seems  scarcely  to  percolate  at  all. 
Yet  it  has  water  in  it,  that  may  probably  soak  out  by  the 
same  process  by  which  it  soaked  in.  Yery  few  soils,  of 
even  such  as  are  called  clay,  are  impervious  to  water, 
especially  in  the  condition  in  which  they  are  found  in 
nature.  To  render  them  impervious,  it  is  necessary  to 
wet  and  stir  them  up,  or,  as  it  is  termed,  puddle  them. 
Any  soil,  so  far  as  it  has  been  weathered — that  is,  ex- 
posed to  air,  water  and  frost — is  permeable  to  water  to 
a  greater  or  less  degree  ;  so  that  we  may  feel  confident  that 
the  upper  stratum  of  any  soil,  not  constantly  under  water, 
will  readily  allow  the  water  to  pass  through. 

And  in  considering  the  "  Drainage  of  Stiff  Clays,"  we 
shall  see  that  the  most  obstinate  clays  are  usually  so 
affected  by  the  operation  of  drainage,  that  they  crack,  and 
so  open  passages  for  the  water  to  the  drains. 

All  gravels,  black  mud  of  swamps,  and  loamy  soils  of 
any  kind,  are  readily  drained. 

Occasionally,  however — even  in  tracts  of  easy  drainage, 
as  a  whole — deposits  are  found  of  some  combinations  with 
iron,  so  firmly  cemented  together,  as  to  be  almost  im- 
penetrable with  the  pick-axe,  and  apparently  impervious 


DISTANCE   OF   DRAINS.  157 

to  water.     Exceptional  cases  of  this  nature  must  be  care- 
fully sought  for  by  the  drainer. 

Whenever  a  wet  spot  is  observed,  seek  for  the  cause, 
and  be  satisfied  whether  it  is  wet  because  a  spring  bursts 
up  from  the  bottom ;  or  because  the  subsoil  is  impervious, 
and  will  not  allow  the  surface-water  to  pass  downward. 
Ascertain  carefully  the  cause  of  the  evil,  and  then  skill- 
fully doctor  the  disease,  and  not  the  symptoms  merely. 
A  careful  attention  to  the  theory  of  moisture,  will  go  far 
to  enable  us  properly  to  determine  the  requisite  frequency 
of  drains. 

DISTANCES   DEPEND    UPON   THE   DEPTH   OF   THE   DKAINS. 

The  relations  of  the  depth  and  distance  of  drains  will 
be  more  fully  considered,  in  treating  of  the  depth  of  drains. 
The  idea  that  depth  will  compensate  for  frequency,  in  all 
cases,  seems  now  to  be  abandoned.  It  is  conceded  that 
clay-soils,  which  readily  absorb  moisture,  and  yet  are 
strongly  retentive,  cannot  be  drained  with  sufficient  rapid- 
ity, or  even  thoroughness,  by  drains  at  any  depth,  unless 
they  are  also  within  certain  distances. 

In  a  porous  soil,  as  a  general  rule,  the  deeper  the  drain, 
the  further  it  will  draw.  The  tendency  of  water  is  to 
lie  level  in  the  soil ;  but  capillary  attraction  and  mechan- 
ical obstructions  offer  constant  resistance  to  this  tendency. 
The  farther  water  has  to  pass  in  the  soil,  the  longer  time, 
other  things  being  equal,  will  be  required  for  the  passage. 
Therefore,  although  a  single  deep  drain  might,  in  ten  days 
lower  the  water-line  as  much  as  two  drains  of  the  same 
depth,  or,  in  other  words,  might  draw  the  water  all  down, 
to  its  own  level,  yet,  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  two 
drains  might  do  the  work  in  less  time — possibly,  in  five 
days.  We  have  seen  already  the  necessity  of  laying 
drains  deep  enough  to  be  below  the  reach  of  the  subsoil 
plow  and  below  frost,  so  that,  in  the  Northern  States,  the 


158  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

question  of  shallow  drainage  seems  hardly  debatable 
Yet,  if  we  adopt  the  conclusion  that  four  feet  is  the  least 
allowable  depth,  where  an  outfall  can  be  found,  there  may 
be  the  question  still,  whether,  in  very  open  soils,  a  still 
greater  depth  may  not  be  expedient,  to  be  compensated 
by  increased  distance. 

DISTANCES    DEPEND   UPON   CLIMATE. 

Climate  includes  the  conditions  of  temperature  and 
moisture,  and  so,  necessarily,  the  seasons.  In  the  chapter 
which  treats  of  Rain,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  quantity  of 
rain  which  falls  in  the  year  is  singularly  various  in  differ- 
ent places.  Even,  in  England,  "  the  annual  average  rain- 
fall of  the  wettest  place  in  Cumberland  is  stated  to  be  141 
inches,  while  19J  inches  may  be  taken  as  the  average  fall 
in  Essex.  In  Cumberland,  there  are  210  days  in  the  year 
in  which  rain  falls,  and  in  Chiswick,  near  London, 

Dllt  124." 

A  reference  to  the  tables  in  another  place,  will  show  us 
an  infinite  variety  in  the  rain-fall  at  different  points  of 
our  own  country. 

If  we  expect,  therefore,  to  furnish  passage  for  but  two 
feet  of  water  in  the  year,  our  drains  need  not  be  so 
numerous  as  would  be  necessary  to  accommodate  twice  that 
quantity,  unless,  indeed,  the  time  for  its  passage  may  be 
different ;  and  this  leads  us  to  another  point  which  should 
ever  be  kept  in  mind  in  New  England — the  necessity  of 
quick  drainage.  The  more  violent  storms  and  showers  of 
our  country,  as  compared  with  England,  have  been  spoken 
of  when  considering  The  Size  of  Tiles.  The  sudden 
transition  from  Winter  to  Summer,  from  the  breaking  up 
of  deep  snows  with  the  heavy  falls  of  rain,  to  our  brief 
and  hasty  planting  time,  requires  that  our  system  of 
drainage  should  be  efficient,  not  only  to  take  off  large 
quantities  of  water,  but  to  take  them  off  in  a  very  short 


DISTANCE    OF   DRAINS.  159 

time.  How  rapidly  water  may  be  expected  to  pass  oii'by 
drainage,  is  not  made  clear  by  writers  on  the  subject, 

"  One  inch  in  depth,"  says  an  English  writer,  "  is  a  very- 
heavy  fall  of  rain  in  a  clay,  and  it  generally  takes  two 
days  for  the  water  to  drain  fully  from  deep  drained  land." 
One  inch  of  water  over  an  acre  is  calculated  to  be  some- 
thing more  than  one  hundred  tons.  This  seems,  in  gross, 
to  be  a  large  amount,  but  we  should  expect  that  an  inch, 
or  even  two  inches  of  water,  spread  evenly  over  a  field, 
would  soon  disappear  from  the  surface  ;  and  if  not  pre- 
vented by  some  impervious  obstruction,  it  must  continue 
downward. 

It  is  said,  on  good  authority,  that,  in  England,  the 
smallest  sized  pipes,  if  the  fall  be  good,  will  be  sufficiently 
large,  at  ordinary  distances,  to  carry  off  all  the  surplus 
water.  In  the  author's  own  fields,  where  two-inch  tiles 
are  laid  at  four  feet  depth  and  fifty  feet  apart,  in  an  open, 
soil,  they  seem  amply  sufficient  to  relieve  the  ground  of 
all  surplus  water  from  rain,  in  a  very  few  days.  Most  of 
them  have  never  ceased  to  run  every  day  in  the  year,  but 
as  they  are  carried  up  into  an  undrained  plain,  they  prob- 
ably convey  much  more  water  than  falls  upon  the  land  in 
which  they  lie. 

So  far  as  our  own  observation  goes,  their  flow  increases 
almost  as  soon  as  rain  begins  to  fall,  and  subsides,  after  it 
ceases,  about  as  soon  as  the  water  in  the  little  river  into 
which  they  lead,  sinks  back  into  its  ordinary  channel,  the 
freshet  in  the  drains  and  in  the  stream  being  nearly  simul- 
taneous. Probably,  two-inch  pipes,  at  fifty  feet  distances, 
will  carry  off,  with  all  desirable  rapidity,  any  quantity  of 
water  that  will  ever  fall,  if  the  soil  be  such  that  the  water 
can  pass  through  it  to  the  distance  necessary  to  find  the 
drains  ;  but  it  is  equally  probable  that,  in  a  compact  clay 
soil,  fifty  feet  distance  is  quite  too  great  for  sufficiently 


160  FARM   DRAINAGE 

rapid  drainage,  because  the  water  cannot  get  to  the  drains 
with  sufficient  rapidity. 

DISTANCES    DEPEND    UPON    THE  COMPARATIVE  PRICES    OF   LABOR 
AND    TILES. 

The  fact,  that  the  last  foot  of  a  four-foot  drain  costs  as 
much  labor  as  the  first  three  feet,  is  shown  in  another 
chapter,  and  the  deeper  we  go,  the  greater  the  compara- 
tive cost  of  the  labor.  With  tiles  at  $10  per  thousand, 
the  cost  of  opening  and  filling  a  four-foot  ditch  is,  in 
round  numbers,  by  the  rod,  equal  to  twice  the  cost  of  the 
tiles.  In  porous  soils,  therefore,  where  depth  may  be 
made  to  compensate  for  greater  distance,  it  is  always  a 
matter  for  careful  estimate,  whether  we  shall  practice 
true  economy  by  laying  the  tiles  at  great  depths,  or  at 
the  smallest  depth  at  which  they  will  be  safe  from  frost 
and  the  subsoil  plow,  and  at  shorter  distances.  The  rule 
is  manifest  that,  where  labor  is  cheap  and  tiles  are  dear, 
it  is  true  economy  to  dig  deep  and  lay  few  tiles ;  and, 
where  tiles  are  cheap  and  labor  is  dear,  it  is  economy  to 
make  the  number  of  drains,  if  possible,  compensate  for 
less  depth. 

DISTANCES    DEPEND   UPON    SYSTEM.       * 

While  we  would  not  lay  down  an  arbitrary  arrange- 
ment for  any  farm,  except  upon  a  particular  examination, 
and  while  we  would  by  no  means  advocate  what  has  been 
called  the  gridiron  system — of  drains  everywhere  at  equal 
depths  and  distances — yet  some  system  is  absolutely 
essential,  in  any  operation  that  approaches  to  thorough 
drainage. 

If  it  be  only  desired  to  cut  off  some  particular  springs, 
or  to  assist  Nature  in  some  ravine  or  basin,  a  deep  drain 
here  and  there  may  be  expedient ;  but  when  any  consider- 
able surface  is  to  be  drained,  there  can  be  no  good  work 
without  a  connected  plan  of  operations. 


DISTANCE   OF   DRAINS.  161 

Mains  must  be  laid  from  the  outfall,  through  the  lowest 
parts ;  and  into  the  mains  the  smaller  drains  must  be  con- 
ducted, upon  such  a  system  as  that  there  may  be  the 
proper  fall  or  inclination  throughout,  and  that  the  whole 
field  shall  be  embraced. 

Again,  a  perfect  plan  of  the  completed  work,  accurately 
drawn  on  paper,  should  always  be  preserved  for  future 
reference.  Now  it  is  manifest,  that  it  is  impossible  to  lay 
out  a  given  field,  with  proper  mains  and  small  drains, 
dividing  the  fall  as  equally  as  practicable  between  the 
different  parts  of  an  undulating  field,  preserving  a  system 
throughout,  by  which,  with  the  aid  of  a  plan,  any  drain 
may  at  any  time  be  traced,  without  making  distances  con- 
form somewhat  to  the  system  of  the  whole. 

It  is  easily  demonstrable,  too,  that  drains  at  right  angles 
with  the  mains,  and  so  parallel  with  each  other,  are  the 
shortest  possible  drains  in  land  that  needs  uniform  drain- 
age. They  take  each  a  more  uniform  share  of  the  water, 
and  serve'  a  greater  breadth  of  soil  than  when  laid  at  acute 
angles.  While,  therefore,  it  may  be  supposed  that  in  par- 
ticular parts  of  the  field,  distances  somewhat  greater  or 
less  might  .be  advisable,  considered  independently,  yet  in 
practice,  it  will  be  found  best,  usually,  to  pay  becoming 
deference  to  order,  "  Heaven's  first  law,"  and  sacrifice 
something  of  the  individual  good,  to  the  leading  idea  of 
the  general  welfare. 

In  the  letter  of  Mr.  Denton,  in  another  chapter,  some 
remarks  will  be  found  upon  the  subject  of  which  we  are 
treating.  The  same  gentleman  has,  in  a  published  paper, 
illustrated  the  impossibility  of  strict  adherence  to  any 
arbitrary  rule  in  the  distances  or  arrangement  of  drains,  as 
follows : 

i:  The  wetness  of  land,  which  for  distinction's  sake,  I  have  called  :  the 
water  of  pressure/  like  the  water  of  springs,  to  which  it  is  nearly  allied, 
can  be  effectually  and  cheaply  removed  only  by  drains  devised  for  and 


162 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


devoted  to  the  object.     Appropriate  deep  drains  at  B  B  B,  for  instance, 
as  indicated  in  the  dark  vertical  Jines,  are  found  to  do  the  service  of 


4  '  /POROUS 


Fig.  85. — The  vertical  dotted  lines  show  the  position  of  parallel  drains 

many  parallel  drains,  which  as  frequently  miss,  as  they  hit,  those  fur- 
rows, or  '  lips,'  in  the  horizontal  out-crop  of  water-bearing  strata  which 
continue  to  exude  wetness  after  the  higher  portions  are  dry. 

"  A  consideration,  too,  of  the  varying  inclinations  of  surface,  of  which 
instances  will  frequently  occur  in  the  same  field,  necessitates  a  depar- 
ture from  uniformity,  not  in  direction  only,  hut  in  intervals  between 
drains.  Take,  for  instance,  the  ordinary  case  of  a  field,  in  which  a 
comparatively  flat  space  will  intervene  between  quickly  rising  ground 
and  the  out-fall  ditch.  It  is  clear  that  the  soak  of  the  hill  will  pervade 
the  soil  of  the  lower  ground,  let  the  system  of  drainage  adopted  be  what 
it  may ;  and,  therefore,  supposing  the  soil  of  the  hill  and  flat  to  be  pre- 
cisely alike,  the  existence  of  bottom  water  in  a  greater  quantity  in  the 
lower  lands  than  in  the  higher,  will  call  for  a  greater  number  of 
drains.  It  is  found,  too,  that  an  independent  discharge  or  relief  of 
the  water  coming  from  the  hill,  at  B,  should  always  be  provided,  in 
order  to  avoid  any  impediment  by  the  slower  flow  of  the  flatter  drains. 

"Experience  shows  that,  with  few  exceptions,  hollows,  or  'slacks.' 


observable  on  the   surface,  as  at  B  B,  have   a   corresponding  undula- 
tion of  subsoil   and  that  any  system  which  does  not  provide  a  direct 


DISTANCE   OF   DRAINS.  163 

release  for  water,  which  would  otherwise  collect  in  and  draw  towards 
these  spots,  is  imperfect  and  unsatisfactory.  It  is  found  to  be  much 
more  safe  to  depend  on  reliel'  drains,  than  on  the  cutting  of  drains 
sufficiently  deep  through  the  bank.s,  at  A  A,  to  gain  a  fall  at  a  regular 
inclination. 

"  Still,  in  spite  of  experience,  we  often  observe  a  disregard  of  these 
facts,  even  in  works  which  are  otherwise  well  executed  to  a  depth  of 
four  feet,  but  fettered  by  methodical  rules,  and  I  feel  compelled  to 
remark,  that  it  has  often  occurred  to  me,  when  I  have  observed  with 
what  diligent  examination  the  rules  of  depth  and  distance  have  been 
tested,  that  if  more  attention  had  been  paid  to  the  source  of  injury,  and 
to  the  mode  of  securing  an  effective  and  permanent  discharge  of  the 
injurious  water,  much  greater  service  would  be  done." 

In  con  elusion,  as  to  distances,  we  should  advise  great 
caution  on  the  part  of  beginners  in  laying  out  their  drains. 
Draining  is  too  expensive  a  work  to  be  carelessly  or  un- 
skillfully  done.  A  mistake  in  locating  drains  too  far 
apart,  brings  a  failure  to  accomplish  the  end  in  view.  A 
mistake  in  placing  them  too  near,  involves  a  great  loss  of 
labor  and  money.  Consult,  then,  those  whose  experience 
has  givren  them  knowledge,  and  pay  to  a  professional  en- 
gineer, or  some  other  skillful  person,  a  small  amount  for 
aid,  which  will  probably  save  ten  times  as  much  in  the 
end.  We  have  placed  our  own  drains  in  porous,  though 
very  wet  soil,  at  fifty  feet  distances,  which,  in  most  soils, 
might  be  considered  extremely  wide.  We  are  fully  satis- 
fied that  they  would  have  drained  the  land  as  well  at  sixty 
feet,  except  in  a  few  low  places,  where  they  could  not  be 
sunk  four  feet  for  want  of  fall. 

In  most  New  England  lands  that  require  drainage,  we 
relieve  that  from  40  to  50  feet  distances,  with  four  feet 
depth,  will  prove  sufficient.  Upon  stiff  clays,  we  have  no 
experience  rf  our  own  of  any  value,  although  we  have  a 
field  of  the  stiffest  clay,  drained  last  season  at  40  feet  distan- 
ces and  four  feet  depth.  In  England,  this  would,  probably, 
prove  insufficient,  and,  perhaps,  it  will  prove  so  here. 


164  FA.KM    DRAINAGE. 

One  thing  is  certain,  that,  at  present,  there  is  little  land 
in  this  country  that  will  pay  for  drainage  by  hand  labor, 
at  the  English  distances  in  clay,  of  16  or  20  feet.  If  our 
powerful  Summer's  sun  will  not  somehow  compensate  in 
part  for  distance,  we  must,  upon  our  clays,  await  the  coming 
of  draining  plows  and  steam. 

DEPTH    OF    DRAINS. 

Cheap  and  temporary  expedients  in  agriculture  are  the 
characteristics  of  us  Americans,  who  have  abundance  ot 
land,  a  whole  continent  to  cultivate,  and  comparatively 
few  hands  and  small  capital  with  which  to  do  the  work. 
We  erect  temporary  houses  and  barns  and  fences,  hoping 
to  find  time  and  means  at  a  future  day,  to  reconstruct 
them  in  a  more  thorough  manner.  We  half  cultivate  our 
new  lands,  because  land  is  cheaper  than  labor ;  and  it  pays 
best  for  the  present,  rather  to  rob  our  mother  earth,  than 
to  give  her  labor  for  bread. 

The  easy  and  cheap  process  in  draining,  is  that  into 
which  we  naturally  fall.  It  is  far  easier  and  cheaper  to 
dig  shallow  than  deep  drains,  and,  therefore,  we  shall  not 
dig  deep  unless  we  see  good  reason  to  do  so.  If,  however, 
we  carefully  study  the  subject,  it  will  be  manifest  that 
superficial  drainage  is,  in  general,  the  result  of  superficial 
knoAvlege  of  the  subject. 

Thorough-drainage  does  not  belong  to  pioneer  farming, 
nor  to  a  cheap  and  temporary  system.  It  involves  capi- 
tal and  labor,  and  demands  skill  and  system.  It  cannot 
be  patched  up,  like  a  brush  fence,  to  answer  the  purpose, 
from  year  to  year,  but  every  tile  must  be  placed  where  it 
will  best  perform  its  office  for  a  generation.  In  England, 
the  rule  and  the  habit  in  all  things,  is  thoroughness  and 
permanency ;  yet  the  first  and  greatest  mistake  there  in 
drainage  was  shallowness,  and  it  has  required  years  of 


DEPTH    OF   DRAINS.  165 

experiments,  and  millions  of  money,  to  correct  that  mis- 
take. If  we  commit  the  same  folly,  as  we  are  very  likely 
to  do,  we  cannot  claim  even  the  originality  of  the  blunder, 
and  shall  be  guilty  of  the  folly  of  pursuing  the  crooked 
paths  of  their  exploration,  instead  of  the  straight  highway 
which  they  have  now  established.  To  be  sure,  the  con- 
troversy as  to  the  depth  of  drains  has  by  110  means  ceased 
in  England,  but  the  question  is  reduced  to  this,  whether 
the  least  depth  shall  be  three  feet  or  four  ;  one  party  con- 
tending that  for  certain  kinds  of  clay,  a  three-foot  drain  is 
as  effectual  as  a  four-foot  drain,  and  that  the  least  effectual 
depth  should  be  used,  because  it  is  the  cheapest ;  while 
the  general  opinion  of  the  best  scientific  and  practical 
men  in  the  kingdom,  has  settled  down  upon  four  feet  as 
the  minimum  depth,  where  the  fall  and  other  circum- 
stances render  it  practicable.  At  the  same  time,  all  admit 
that,  in  many  cases,  a  greater  depth  than  four  feet  is 
required  by  true  economy.  It  may  seem,  at  first,  that  a 
controversy,  as  to  one  additional  foot  in  a  system  of  drain- 
age, depends  upon  a  very  small  point ;  but  a  little  reflec- 
tion will  show  it  to  be  worthy  of  careful  consideration. 
Without  going  here  into  a  nice  calculation,  it  may  be 
stated  generally  as  an  established  fact,  that  the  excava- 
tion of  a  ditch  four  feet  deep,  costs  twice  as  much  as 
that  of  a  ditch  three  feet  deep.  Although  this  may  not 
seem  credible  to  one  who  has  not  considered  the  point, 
yet  it  will  become  more  probable  on  examination,  and 
very  clear,  when  the  actual  digging  is  attempted.  Ditches 
for  tiles  are  always  opened  widest  at  top,  with  a  gradual 
narrowing  to  near  the  bottom,  where  they  should  barely 
admit  the  tile.  Now,  the  addition  of  a  foot  to  the  depth, 
is  not,  as  it  would  perhaps  at  first  appear,  merely  the  addi- 
tion of  the  lowest  and  narrowest  foot,  but  rather  of  the 
topmost  and  widest  foot.  In  other  words,  a  four-foot  ditch 
is  precisely  a  three-foot  ditch  in  size  and  form,  with  an 


166  FAKM  DRAINAGE. 

additional  foot  on  the  top  of  it,  and  not  a  three-foot  ditch 
deepened  an  additional  foot. 

The  lowest  foot  of  a  four-foot  ditch  is  raised  one  foot 
higher,  to  get  it  upon  the  surface,  than  if  the  ditch  were 
but  three  feet  deep.  In  clays,  and  most  other  soils,  the 
earth  grows  harder  as  we  go  deeper,  and  this  considera- 
tion, in  practice,  will  be  found  important.  Again :  the 
small  amount  of  earth  from  a  three-foot  ditch,  may  lie 
conveniently  on  one  bank  near  its  edge,  while  the  addi- 
tional mass  from  a  deeper  one  must  be  thrown  further; 
and  then  is  to  be  added  the  labor  of  replacing  the  addi- 
tional quantity  in  filling  up. 

On  the  whole,  the  point  may  be  conceded,  that  the 
labor  of  opening  and  finishing  a  four-foot  drain  is  double 
that  of  a  three-foot  drain. 

Without  stopping  here  to  estimate  carefully  the  cost  of 
excavation  and  the  cost  of  tiles,  it  may  be  remarked,  that, 
upon  almost  any  estimate,  the  cost  of  labor,  even  in  a 
three-foot  drain  in  this  country,  yet  far  exceeds  the  cost 
of  tiles  :  but,  if  we  call  them  equal,  then,  if  the  addi- 
tional foot  of  depth  costs  as  much  as  the  first  three  feet, 
we  have  the  cost  of  a  four-foot  tile-drain  fifty  per  cent, 
more  than  that  of  a  three-foot  drain.  In  other  words,  200 
rods  of  four-foot  drain  will  cost  just  as  much  as  300  rods 
of  three-foot  drain.  This  is,  probably,  as  nearly  accurate 
as  any  general  estimate  that  can  be  made  at  present.  The 
principles  upon  which  the  calculations  depend,  having 
been  thus  suggested,  it  will  not  be  difficult  to  vary  them 
so  as  to  apply  them  to  the  varying  prices  of  labor  and 
tiles,  and  to  the  use  of  the  plow  or  other  implements  pro- 
pelled by  animals  or  steam,  when  applied  to  drainage  in 
our  country. 

The  earliest  experiments  in  thorough-drainage,  in  Eng- 
land, were  at  very  small  depths,  two  feet  being,  for  a  time, 
considered  very  deep,  and  large  tracts  were  underlaid 


DEPTH    OF   DRAINS.  167 

with  tiles  at  a  depth  of  eighteen,  and  even  twelve  inches. 
It  is  said,  that  10,000  miles  of  drains,  two  feet  deep  and 
less,  were  laid  in  Scotland  before  it  was  found  that  this 
depth  was  not  sufficient.  Of  course,  the  land  thus  treated 
was  relieved  of  much  water,  and  experimenters  were  often 
much  gratified  with  their  success  ;  but  it  may  be  safely  said 
now,  that  there  is  no  advocate  known  to  the  public,  in 
England,  for  a  system  of  drainage  of  less  than  three  feet 
depth,  and  no  one  advocates  a  system  of  drainage  of  less 
than  four  feet  deep,  except  upon  some  peculiar  clays. 

The  general  principle  seems  well  established,  that  depth 
will  compensate  for  width ;  or,  in  other  words,  that  the 
deeper  the  drain,  the  farther  it  will  draw.  This  principle, 
generally  correct,  is  questioned  when  applied  to  peculiar 
clays  only.  As  to  them,  all  that  is  claimed  is,  that  it  is 
more  economical  to  make  the  drains  but  three  feet,  because 
they  must,  even  if  deep,  be  near  together — nobody  doubt- 
ing, that  if  four  feet  deep  or  more,  and  near  enough,  they 
will  drain  the  land. 

In  speaking  of  day  soil,  it  should  always  be  borne  in 
mind,  that  clay  is  merely  a  relative  term  in  agriculture. 
"  A  clay  in  Scotland,"  says  Mr.  Pusey,  "  would  be  a  loam 
in  the  South  of  England."  Professor  Mapes,  of  our  own 
country,  in  the  Working  Farmer,  says,  "  We  are  convinced, 
that,  with  thorough  subsoil  plowing,  no  clay  soil  exists  in 
this  country  which  might  not  be  underdrained  to  a  depth 
of  four  feet  with  advantage." 

There  cy.n  be  no  doubt,  that,  with  four-foot  drains  at 
proper  distances,  all  soils,  except  some  peculiar  clays,  may 
be  drained,  even  without  reference  to  the  changes  pro- 
duced in  the  mechanical  structure  of  soil  by  the  operation. 
There  is  no  doubt,  however,  that  all  soils  are,  by  the  ad- 
mission of  air,  which  must  always  take  the  place  of  the 
wate/  drawn  out,  and  by  the  percolation  of  water  through 
ther.u  rendered  gradually  more  porous.  Added  to  this, 


168  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

the  subsoil  plow,  which  will  be  the  follower  of  drainage, 
will  break  up  the  soil  to  considerable  depth,  and  thus 
make  it  more  permeable  to  moisture.  But  there  is  still 
another  and  more  effective  aid  which  Nature  affords  to  the 
land-drainer,  upon  what  might  be  otherwise  impracticable 
clays. 

This  topic  deserves  a  careful  and  distinct  consideration, 
which  it  will  receive  under  the  title  of  "  Drainage  of  Stiff 
Clays." 

In  discussing  the  subject  of  the  depth  of  drains,  we  are 
not  unmindful  of  the  fact  that,  in.  this  country,  the  leaders 
in  the  drainage  movement,  especially  Messrs.  Delafield, 
Yeomans,  and  Johnston,  of  New  York,  have  achieved  their 
truly  striking  results,  by  the  use  of  tiles  laid  at  from  two 
and  a  half  to  three  feet  depth.  On  the  "  Premium  Farm" 
of  R.  J.  Swan,  of  Rose  Hill,  near  Geneva,  it  is  stated 
that  there  are  sixty-one  miles  of  under-drains,  laid  from 
two  and  a  half  to  three  feet  deep.  That  these  lands  thus 
drained  have  been  changed  in  their  character,  from  cold, 
wet,  and  unproductive  wastes,  in  many  cases,  to  fertile 
and  productive  fields  of  corn  and  wheat,  sufficiently 
appears.  Indeed,  we  all  know  of  fields  drained  only  with 
Btone  drains  two  feet  deep,  that  have  been  reclaimed  from 
wild  grasses  and  rushes  into  excellent  mowing  fields.  In 
England  and  in  Scotland,  as  we  have  seen,  thousands  of 
miles  of  shallow  drains  were  laid,  and  were  for  years 
quite  satisfactory.  These  facts  speak  loudly  in  favor  of 
drainage  in  general.  The  fact  that  shoal  drains  produce 
results  so  striking,  is  a  stumbling-block  in  the  progress  of 
a  more  thorough  system.  It  may  seem  like  presumption 
to  say  to  those  to  whom  we  are  so  much  indebted  for 
their  public  spirit,  as  well  as  private  enterprise,  that  they 
have  not  drained  deep  enough  for  the  greatest  advantage 
in  the  end.  It  would  seem  that  they  should  know  their 
own  farms  and  their  own  results  better  than  others.  We 


DEPTH    OF   DRAINS.  169 

propose  to  state,  with  all  fairness,  the  results  of  their  ex- 
periments, and  to  detract  nothing  from  the  credit  which 
is  due  to  the  pioneers  in  a  great  work. 

We  cannot,  however,  against  the  overwhelming  weight 
of  authority,  and  against  the  reasons  for  deeper  drainage, 
which,  to  us,  seern  so  satisfactory,  conclude,  that  even 
three  feet  is,  in  general,  deep  enough  for  under-draius. 
Three-foot  drains  will  produce  striking  results  on  almost 
any  wet  lands,  but  four-foot  drains  will  be  more  secure 
and  durable,  will  give  wider  feeding-grounds  to  the  roots, 
better  filter  the  percolating  water,  warm  and  dry  the  land 
earlier  in  Spring,  furnish  a  larger  reservoir  for  heavy 
rains,  and,  indeed,  more  effectually  perform  every  office 
of  drains. 

In  reviewing  our  somewhat  minute  discussion  of  this 
essential  point — the  proper  depth  of  drains — certain  pro- 
positions may  be  laid  down  with  considerable  assurance. 

TILES     MUST     BE     LAID     BELOW    THE    BEACH    OF    THE     SUBSOIL 

PLOW. 

Let  no  man  imagine  that  he  shall  never  use  the  subsoil 
plow;  for  so  surely  as  he  has  become  already  so  much 
alive  to  improvement,  as  to  thorough-drain,  so  surely  will 
he  next  complete  the  work  thus  begun,  by  subsoiling  his 
land. 

The  subsoil  plow  follows  in  the  furrow  of  another 
plow,  and  if  the  forward  plow  turn  a  furrow  one  foot 
deep,  the  subsoil  may  be  run  two  feet  more,  making  three 
feet  in  all.  Ordinarily,  the  subsoil  plow  is  run  only  to 
the  depth  of  18  or  20  inches ;  but  if  the  intention  were 
to  run  it  no  deeper  than  that,  it  would  be  liable  to  dip 
much  deeper  occasionally,  as  it  came  suddenly  upon  the 
loft  places  above  the  drains.  The  tiles  should  lie  far 
enough  below  the  deepest  path  of  the  subsoil  plow,  not 
to  be  at  all  disturbed  by  its  pressure  in  passing  over  the 
8 


170  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

drains.  It  is  by  no  means  improbable  that  fields  thai 
have  already  been  drained  in  this  country,  may  be,  in  the 
lifetime  of  their  present  occupants,  plowed  and  subsoiled 
by  means  of  steam-power,  and  stirred  to  as  great  a  depth 
as  shall  be  found  at  all  desirable.  But,  in  the  present 
mode  of  using  the  subsoil  plow  on  land  free  from  stones,  a 
depth  less  than  three  and  a  half  or  four  feet  would  hardly 
be  safe  for  the  depth  of  tile-drains. 

TILES   MUST   BE   LAID   BELOW    FROST. 

This  is  a  point  upon  which  we  must  decide  for  our 
selves.  There  is  no  country  where  drainage  is  practiced, 
where  the  thermometer  sinks,  as  in  almost  every 
Winter  it  does  in  New  England,  to  20°  below  zero  (Fah- 
renheit). 

All  writers  seem  to  assume  that  tile-drains  must  be  in- 
jured by  frost.  What  the  effect  of  frost  upon  them  is 
supposed  to  be,  does  not  seem  very  clear.  If  filled  with 
water,  and  frozen,  they  must,  of  course,  burst  by  the 
expansion  of  the  water  in  freezing ;  but  it  would  prob- 
ably rarely  happen,  that  drain  age- water,  running  in  cold 
weather,  could  come  from  other  than  deep  sources,  and 
it  must  then  be  considerably  above  the  freezing  point. 
Still,  we  know  that  aqueduct  pipes  do  freeze  at  considera- 
able  depths,  though  supplied  from  deep  springs.  Neither 
these  nor  gas-pipes  are,  in  our  New  England  towns,  safe 
below  frost,  unless  laid  four  feet  below  the  surface ; 
and  instances  occur  where  they  freeze  at  a  much  greater 
depth,  usually,  however,  under  the  beaten  paths  of  streets, 
or  in  exposed  positions,  where  the  snow  is  blown  away.  In 
such  places,  the  earth  sometimes  freezes  solid  to  the  depth 
of  even  six  feet.  It  will  be  suggested  at  once  that  our 
fields,  and  especially  our  wet  lands,  do  not  freeze  so  deep, 
and  this  is  true ;  but  it  must  be  borne  in  mind,  that  the 
very  reason  why  our  wet  lands  do  not  freeze  deeper,  may 


DEPTH   OF   DRAINS.  171 

be,  that  they  are  filled  with  the  very  spring-  water  which 
makes  them  cold  in  Summer,  indeed,  but  is  warmer  than 
the  air  in  Winter,  and  so  keeps  out  the  frost.  Drained 
lands  will  freeze  deeper  than  undrained  lands,  and  the 
farmer  must  be  vigilant  upon  this  point,  or  he  may  have 
his  work  ruined  in  a  single  Winter. 

We  are  aware,  that  upon  this,  as  every  other  point,  as- 
certained facts  may  seem  strangely  to  conflict.  In  the 
town  of  Lancaster,  among  the  mountains  in  the  coldest 
part  of  New  Hampshire,  many  of  the  houses  and  barns 
of  the  village  are  supplied  with  water  brought  in  aque- 
ducts from  the  hills.  We  observed  that  the  logs  which 
form  the  conduit  are,  in  many  places,  exposed  to  view  on 
the  surface  of  the  ground,  sometimes  partly  covered  with 
earth,  but  generally  very  little  protected.  There  has  not 
been  a  Winter,  perhaps  in  a  half  century,  when  the  ther- 
mometer has  not  at  times  been  10°  below  Zero,  and  often 
it  is  even  lower  than  that.  Upon  particular  inquiry,  we 
ascertained  that  very  little  inconvenience  is  experienced 
there  from  the  freezing  of  the  pipes.  The  water  is  drawn 
from  deep  springs  in  the  mountains,  and  fills  the  pipes  of 
from  one  to  two-inch  bore,  passing  usually  not  more  than 
one  or  two  hundred  rods  before  it  is  discharged,  and  its 
warmth  is  sufficient,  with  the  help  of  its  usual  snow  cover- 
ing, to  protect  it  from  the  frost. 

We  have  upon  our  own  premises  an  aqueduct,  which 
supplies  a  cattle-yard,  which  has  never  been  covered  more 
than  two  feet  deep,  arid  has  never  frozen  in  the  nine  years 
of  its  use.  We  should  not,  therefore,  apprehend  much 
danger  from  tlae  freezing  of  pipes,  even  at  shallow  depths, 
if  they  carry  all  the  Winter  a  considerable  stream  of 
spring-water  ;  but  in  pipes  which  take  merely  the  surface 
water  that  passes  into  them  by  percolation,  we  should  ex- 
pect little  or  no  aid  from  the  water  in  preventing  frost. 
The  water  filtering  downward  in  Winter  must  be  nearly 


172  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

at  the  freezing  point ;  and  the  pipes  may  be  filled  with 
solid  ice,  bj  the  freezing  of  a  very  small  quantity  as  it 
enters  them. 

Neither  hard-burnt  bricks  nor  hard-burnt  tiles  \vill 
crumble  by  mere  exposure  to  the  Winter  weather  above 
ground,  though  soft  bricks  or  tiles  will  scarcely  endure  a 
single  hard  frost.  Too  much  stress  cannot  be  laid  upon 
the  importance  of  using  hard-burnt  tiles  only,  as  the 
failure  of  a  single  tile  may  work  extensive  mischief. 
"Writers  seem  to  assume,  that  the  freezing  of  tne  ground 
about  the  drains  will  displace  the  tiles,  and  so  destroy  their 
continuity,  and  this  may  be  so ;  though  we  find  no  evi- 
dence, perhaps,  that  at  three  or  four  feet,  there  is  any  dis- 
turbance of  the  soil  by  freezing.  We  dig  into  clay,  or 
into  our  strong  subsoils,  and  find  the  earth,  at  three  feet 
deep,  as  solid  and  undisturbed  as  at  twice  that  depth,  and 
no  indication  that  the  frost  has  touched  it,  though  it  has 
felt  the  grip  of  his  icy  fingers  every  year  since  the  Flood. 
With  these  suggestions  for  warning  and  for  encourage- 
ment, the  subject  must  be  left  to  the  sound  judgment  of 
the  farmer  or  engineer  upon  each  farm,  to  make  the  mat- 
ter so  safe,  that  the  owner  need  not  have  an  anxious 
thought,  as  he  wakes  in  a  howling  Winter  'night,  lest  his 
drains  should  be  freezing. 

Finally,  in  view  of  the  various  considerations  that  have 
been  suggested,  as  well  as  of  the  almost  uniform  authority 
of  the  ablest  writers  and  practical  men,  it  is  safe  to  con- 
clude, that,  in  general,  in  this  country,  wherever  sufficient 
outfall  can  be  had,  four  feet  above  the  top  oft\e  tiles  should 
be  the  minimum  depth  of  drains. 


ARRANGEMENT   OF   DRAINS.  173 


CHAPTEE   VIII. 

ARRANGEMENT    OF    DRAINS. 

Necessity  ol  Syst  em.— "What  Fall  is  Necessary.— American  Examples  —Out- 
lets.— Weils  arid  Relief-Pipes. — Peep  holes.— How  to  secure  Outlets.— Gate 
to  Exclude  Back-Water. — Gratings  and  Screens  to  keep  out  Frogs,  Snakes, 
Moles,  &c. — Mains,  Submains,  and  Minors,  how  placed. — Capacity  of  Pipes. 
— Mains  of  Two  Tiles. — Junction  of  Drains.— Effect  of  Curves  and  Angles 
on  Currents. — Branch  Pipes. — Draining  mto  Wells  or  Swallow  Holes. — 
Letter  from  Mr.  Denton. 

As  every  act  is,  or  should  be,  a  part  of  a  great  plan  of 
life,  so  every  stake  that  is  set,  and  every  line  laid  in  the 
field,  should  have  relation  not  only  to  general  principles, 
but  also  to  some  comprehensive  plan  of  operations. 

Assuming,  then,  that  the  principles  advocated  in  this 
treatise  are  adopted  as  to  the  details,  that  the  depth  pre- 
ferred is  not  less  than  four  feet — that  the  direction  preferred 
is  up  and  down  the  slope — that  the  distance  apart  may 
range  from  fifteen  to  sixty  feet,  and  more  in  some  cases, 
according  to  the  depth  of  drains  and  the  nature  of  the  soil 
— that  no  tiles  smaller  than  one  and  a  half  inch  bore  will 
be  used,  and  none  less  than  two  inches  except  for  the  first 
one  hundred  yards,  there  still  remains  the  application  of 
all  these  principles  to  the  particular  work  in  hand.  With 
the  hope  of  assisting  the  deliberations  of  the  farmer  on 
this  point,  some  additional  suggestions  will  be  made  under 
appropriate  heads. 

ARRANGEMENT   MUST   HAVE   REFERENCE   TO    SYSTEM. 

The  absolute  necessity  of  some  regularity  of  plan  in  our 
work,  must  be  manifest.     "Without  system,  we  can  never, 


174 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


in  the  outset,  estimate  the  cost  of  our  operation ;  we  can 
never  proportion  our  tiles  to  the  quantity  of  water  that 
will  pass  through  them ;  we  can  never  find  the  drains 
afterwards,  or  form  a  correct  opinion  of  the  cause  of  any 
failure  that  may  await  us. 

We  prefer,  in  general,  where  practicable,  parallel  lines 
for  our  minor  drains,  at  right  angles  with  the  mains, 
because  this  is  the  simplest  and  most  systematic  arrange- 
ment ;  but  the  natural  ravines  or  water-courses  in  fields, 
seldom  run  parallel  with  each  other,  or  at  right  angles 
with  the  slope  of  the  hills,  so  that  regular  work  like  this, 
can  rarely  be  accomplished. 

If  the  earth  were  constructed  of  regular  slopes,  or  plains 
of  uniform  character,  we  could  easily  apply  to  it  all  our 
rules  ;  but,  broken  as  it  is  into  hills  and  valleys,  filled  with 
stones  here,  with  a  bank  of  clay  there,  and  a  sand-pit  close 
by,  we  are  obliged  to  sacrifice  to  general  convenience, 
often,  some  special  abstract  rule. 

We  prefer  to  run  drains  up  and  down  the  slope ;  but  if 
the  field  be  filled  with  undulations,  or  hills  with  various 
slopes,  we  may  often  find  it  expedient,  for  the  sake  of 
system,  to  vary  this  course. 

If  the  question  were  only  as  to  one  single  drain,  we 
could  adjust  it  so  as  to  conform  to  our  perfect  ideal ;  but 
as  each  drain  is,  as  it  were,  an  artery  in  a  complicated 
system,  which  mast  run  through  and  affect  every  part  of 
it,  all  must  be  located  with  reference  to  every  other,  and 
to  the  general  effect. 

Keeping  in  mind,  then,  the  importance  of  some  regular 
system  that  shall  include  the  whole  field  of  operation,  the 
work  should  be  laid  out,  with  as  near  a  conformity  to 
established  principles  as  circumstances  will  permit. 

ARRANGEMENT    MUST    HAVE    REFERENCE    TO    THE    FALL. 

In  considering  what  fall  is  necessary,  and  what  is  desir- 
able, we  have  seen,  that  although  a  very  slight  inclination 


ARRANGEMENT   OF   DRAINS.  175 

may  carry  off  water,  yet  a  proportionally  larger  drain 
is  necessary  as  the  fall  decreases,  because  the  water  runs 
slower. 

i:  It  is  surprising,"  says  Stephens,  ''-what  a  small  descent  is  required 
for  the  flow  of  water  in  a  well-constructed  duct.  People  frequently 
complain  that  they  cannot  find  sufficient  fall  to  carry  off  the  water  from 
the  drains.  There  are  few  situations  where  a  sufficient  fall  cannot  be 
found  if  due  pains  are  exercised.  It  has  been  found  in  practice,  that  a 
water-course  thirty  feet  wide  and  six  feet  deep,  giving  a  transverse  sec- 
tional area  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  square  feet,  will  discharge  three 
hundred  cubic  yards  of  water  per  minute,  and  will  flow  at  the  rate  of 
one  mile  per  hour,  with  a  fall  of  no  more  than  six  inches  per  mile." 

Messrs.  Shedd  and  Edson,  of  Boston,  have  superintended 
some  drainage  works  in  Milton,  Mass.,  where,  after  obtain- 
ing permission  to  drain  through  the  land  of  an  adjacent 
owner,  not  interested  in  the  operation,  they  could  obtain 
but  three  inches  fall  in  one  hundred  feet,  or  a  half  inch  to 
the  rod,  for  three  quarters  of  a  mile,  and  this  only  by 
blasting  the  ledges  at  the  outlet.  This  fall,  however, 
proves  sufficient  for  perfect  drainage,  and  by  their  skill,  a 
very  unhealthful  swamp  has  been  rendered  fit  for  gardens 
and  building-lots.  In  another  instance,  in  Dorchester, 
Mass.,  Mr.  Shedd  informs  us  that  in  one  thousand  feet, 
they  could  obtain  only  a  fall  of  two  inches  for  their  main, 
and  this,  by  nice  adjustment,  he  expects  to  make  sufficient. 
In  another  instance,  he  has  found  a  fall  of  two  and  a  half 
inches  in  one  hundred  feet,  in  an  open  paved  drain  to  be 
effectual. 

It  is  certainly  advisable  always  to  divide  the  fall  as  even 
as  possible  throughout  the  drains,  yet  this  will  be  found  a 
difficult  rule  to  follow.  Yery  often  we  have  a  space  of 
nearly  level  ground  to  pass  through  to  our  outfall ;  and, 
usually,  the  mains,  in  order  that  the  minor  drains  may  be 
carried  into  them  from  both  sides,  must  follow  up  the  na- 
tural valleys  in  the  field,  thus  controlling,  in  a  great  mea- 


176  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

sure,  our  cnoice  as  to  the  fall.  We  are,  in  fact,  often  com> 
pelled  to  use  the  natural  fall  nearly  as  we  find  it. 

It  is  thought  advisable  to  have  the  mains  from  three  to 
six  inches  lower  than  the  drains  discharging  into  them,  so 
that  there  may  be  no  obstruction  in  the  minor  drains  by 
the  backing  up  of  water,  and  the  consequent  deposition  of 
sand  or  other  obstructing  substances.  Wherever  one 
stream  flows  into  another,  there  must  be  more  or  less  in- 
terruption of  the  course  of  each.  If  the  water  from  the 
minors  enters  the  main  with  a  quick  fall,  the  danger  of 
obstruction  in  the  minor,  at  least,  is  much  lessened.  A 
frequent  cause  of  partial  failure  of  drains,  is  their  not 
having  been  laid  with  a  regular  inclination.  If,  instead 
of  a  gradual  and  uniform  fall,  there  should  be  a  slight 
rising  in  the  bed  of  a  drain,  the  descending  water  will  be 
interrupted  there  till  it  accumulate  so  high  as  to  be  above 
the  level  of  the  rising.  At  this  point,  therefore,  the  water 
must  have  a  tendency  to  press  out  of  the  drains,  and  will 
deposit  whatever  particles  of  sand  or  other  earthy  matter 
it  may  bring  down. 

Drains  must,  therefore,  be  so  arranged,  that  in  cutting 
them,  their  beds  may  be  as  nearly  as  possible,  straight,  or, 
at  least,  have  a  constant,  if  not  a  regular  and  equal  fall. 

ARRANGEMENT    MUST    HAVE   REFERENCE   TO   THE    OUTLET. 

All  agree  that  it  is  best  to  have  but  few  general  outlets. 
"  In  the  whole  process  of  draining,"  says  an  engineer  of 
experience,  "  there  is  nothing  so  desirable  as  permanent 
and  substantial  work  at  the  point  of  discharge."  The  out- 
let is  the  place,  of  all  others,  where  obstruction  is  most 
likely  to  occur.  Everywhere  else  the  work  is  protected 
by  the  earth  above  it,  but  here  it  is  exposed  to  the  action 
of  frost,  to  cattle,  to  mischievous  boys,  to  reptiles,  as  well 
as  to  the  obstructing  deposits  which  are  discharged  from 
the  drains  themselves.  In  regular  work,  under  the  direc- 


OUTLETS.  177 

tion  of  engineers,  iron  pipes,  with  swing  gratings  set  in 
raascniy,  are  used,  to  protect  permanently  this  important 
part  of  the  system  of  drainage. 

It  may  often  be  convenient  to  run  parallel  drains  down 
a  slope,  bringing  each  out  into  an  open  ditch,  or  at  the 
bottom  of  some  bank,  thus  making  a  separate  outlet  for 
each.  This  practice,  however,  is  strongly  deprecated. 
These  numerous  outlets  cannot  be  well  protected  without 
great  cost  ;  they  will  be  forgotten,  or,  at  least,  neglected, 
and  the  work  will  fail. 

Regarding  this  point,  of  few  and  well-secured  outlets,  as 
of  great  importance,  the  arrangement  of  all  the  drains 
must  have  reference  to  it.  When  drains  are  brought 
down  a  slope,  as  just  suggested,  let  them,  instead  of  dis- 
charging separately,  be  crossed,  near  the  foot  of  the  slope, 
by  a  submain  running  a  little  diagonally  so  as  to  secure 
sufficient  fall,  and  so  carried  into  a  main,  or  discharged 
at  a  single  outlet. 

It  may  be  objected,  that  by  thus  uniting  the  whole  sys- 
tem, and  discharging  the  water  at  one  point,  there  may  be 
difficulty  in  ascertaining  by  inspection,  whether  any  of  the 
drains  are  obstructed,  or  whether  all  are  performing  their 
appropriate  work.  There  is  prudence  and  good  sense  in 
this  suggestion,  and  the  objection  may  be  obviated  by 
placing  wells,  or  "  peep-holes,"  at  proper  intervals,  in 
which  the  flow  of  the  water  at  various  points  may  be  ob- 
served. On  the  subject  of  wells  and  peep-holes,  the  reader 
will  find  in  another  chapter  a  more  particular  description 
of  their  construction  and  usefulness. 

The  position  of  the  outlet  must,  evidently,  be  at  a  point 
sufficiently  low  to  receive  all  the  water  of  the  field  ;  or, 
in  other  words,  it  must  be  the  lowest  point  of  the  work. 
It  will  be  fortunate,  too,  if  the  outlet  can  be  at  the  same 
time  high  enough  to  be  at  all  times  above  the  back- 
water of  the  stream,  or  pond,  or  marsh,  into  which  it 


178  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

empties  ;  and  high  enough,  too,  to  be  protected  by  solid 
earth  about  it.  In  any  case,  great  care  should  be  taken 
to  make  the  outlet  secure  and  permanent.  The  process 
of  thorough-drainage  is  expensive,  and  will  only  repay 
cost,  upon  the  idea  that  it  is  permanent  —  that  once  well 
done,  it  is  done  forever.  The  tiles  may  be  expected  to 
operate  well,  for  a  lifetime  ;  and  the  outlet,  the  only  exposed 
portion  of  the  work,  should  be  constructed  to  endure  as 
long  as  the  rest. 

It  is  true  that  this  portion  of  the  work  may  be  reached 
and  repaired  more  conveniently  than  the  tiles  themselves  ; 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  the  decay  of  the  outlet 
obstructs  the  flow  of  the  water,  produces  a  general  stag- 
nation throughout  the  drains,  and  so  may  cause  their 
permanent  obstruction  at  various  points,  hard  to  be  ascer- 
tained, and  difficult  to  be  reached.  Considering  our  lia- 
bility to  neglect  such  things  as  perish  by  a  gradual  decay, 
as  well  as  the  many  accidental  injuries  to  which  the  out- 
let is  exposed,  there  is  no  security  but  in  a  solid  and  per- 
manent structure  at  the  first. 

To  illustrate  the  importance  attached  to  this  point  in 
England,  as  well  as  to  indicate  the  best  mode  of  secur- 
ing the  outlet,  the  drawings  below  have  been  taken  from 
a  pamphlet  by  Mr.  Denton.  Fig.  37  represents  the  mode 
of  r.cnstructing  the  common  small  outlets  of  field  drainage. 


^i|gift^^ 

3  '&**  *"'  *&  '"-  -*  '^  ''-*  ( 


Fig.  37.— SMALL  OUTLET. 

The  distinguished  engineer,  of  whose  labors  we  have  so 


OUTLETS. 


179 


freely   availed   ourselves,   remarks   as  follows   upon   the 
subject : 

"  Too  many  outlets  are  objectionable,  on  account  of  the  labor  of  their 
maintenance;  too  few  are  objectionable,  because  they  can  only  exist 
where  there  are  mains  of  excessive  Irngth.  A  limit  of  twenty  acres 
to  an  outlet,  resulting  in  an  average  of,  perhaps,  fourteen  acres,  will 
appear,  by  the  practices  of  the  best  drainers,  to  be  about  the  proper 
thing.  If  a  shilling  an  acre  is  reserved  for  fixing  the  outlets,  which 
should  be  iron  pipes,  with  swing  gratings,  in  masonry,  very  substantial 
work  may  be  done." 

Figures  38  and  39  represent  the  elevation  and  section 
of  larger  outlets,  used  in  more  extensive  works. 

3 


Fig.  38.— LARGE  OUTLET. 

It  is  almost  essential  to  the  efficiency  of  drains,  that 
there  be  fall  enough  beyond  the  outlet  to  allow  of  the 
quick  flow  of  the  water  discharged.  At  the  outlet,  must 
be  deposited  whatever  earth  is  brought  down  by  the 
drains ;  and,  in  many  cases,  the  outlet  must  be  at  a  swamp 
or  pond.  If  no  decided  fall  can  be  obtained  at  the  outlet, 


180 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


there  must  be  care  to  provide  and  keep  an  open  ditch  or 
passage,  so  that  the  drainage-water  may  not  be  dammed 
back  in  the  drains.  It  is  advised,  even,  to  follow  down  the 
bank  of  a  stream  or  river,  so  as  to  obtain  sufficient  fall, 
rather  than  to  have  the  outlet  flooded,  or  back-water  in 


Fig.  89.— LABGE  OUTLET. 

the  drains.  Still,  there  may  be  cases  where  it  will  be  im- 
possible to  have  an  outlet  that  shall  be  always  above  the 
level  of  the  river  or  pond  which  may  receive  the  drain- 
age-water. If  the  outlet  must  be  so  situated  as  to  be  at 
times  overflowed,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  excavate 
a  place  at  the  outlet,  into  which  any  deposits  brought 
down  by  the  drain,  may  fall.  If  the  outlet  be  level  with 
the  ground  beyond  it,  the  smallest  quantity  of  earth  will 
operate  as  a  dam  to  keep  back  the  water.  Therefore,  at 
the  outlet,  in  such  cases,  a  small  well  of  brick  or  stone- 
work should  be  constructed,  into  which  the  water  should 
po?ir.  There,  even  "if  the~  v  ater  stand  above  the  outle\ 


OUTLETS. 


181 


•will  be  deposited  the  earth  brought  along  in  the  drain. 
This  well  must  at  times,  when  the  water  is  low,  be 
cleared  of  its  contents,  and  kept  ready  for  its  work. 

The  effect  of  back-water  in  drains  cannot  ordinarily  be 
injurious,  except  as  it  raises  the  water  higher  in  the  land, 
and  occasions  deposits  of  earthy  matter,  and  so  obstructs 
the  drains.  "We  have  in  mind  now,  the  common  case  of 
water  temporarily  raised,  by  Winter  flowage  or  by  Summer 
freshets. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  even  when  the  outlet  is 
under  water,  if  there  is  any  current  in  the  stream  into 
which  the  drain  empties,  there  must  be  some  current  in 
the  drain  also  ;  and  even  if  the  drain  discharge  into  a  still 
pond,  there  must  be  a  current  greater  or  less,  as  water 
from  a  level  higher  than  the  surface  of  the  pond,  presses 
into  the  drains.  Generally,  then,  under  the  most  unfavor- 
able circumstances,  we  may  expect  to  have  some  flow  of 
water  through  the  pipes,  and  rarely  an 
utter  stagnation.  If,  then,  the  tiles  be 
carefully  laid,  so  as  to  admit  only  well- 
h'ltered  water,  there  can  be  but  little 
deposit  in  the  drain ;  and  a  temporary 

ifrgS      Ltratmg       ^ft  .  .     .          r  J 

|i  awpif-  U"^  ^S|    stagnation,  even,  will  not  injure  them, 
and  a  trifling  flow  will  keep  them  clean. 
Much  will  depend,  as  to  the  obstruc- 
tion of  drains,  in  this,  and  indeed  in  all 
cases,  upon  the  internal  smoothness,  and 
upon  the  nice  adjustment  of  the  pipes. 
In  case  of  the  drainage  of  marshes,  and 
other  lands  subject  to  sudden  flood,  a 
flap,  or  gate,  is  used  to  exclude   the 
water  of  flowage,  until  counterbalanced 
by  the  drainage-water  in  the  pipes. 
We  are  quite  sure  that  it  is  not  in  us  a  work  of  superero- 
gation to  urge  upon  our  farmers  the  importance  of  careful 


182  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

attention  to  this  matter  of  outlets.  This  is  one  of  that 
class  of  things  which  will  never  be  attended  to,  if  left  to 
be  daily  watched.  We  Americans  have  so  much  work  to 
do,  that  we  have  no  time  to  be  careful  and  watchful.  If 
a  child  fall  into  the  fire,  we  take  time  to  snatch  him 
out.  If  a  sheep  or  ox  get  mired  in  a  ditch,  we  leave 
our  other  business,  and  fly  to  the  rescue.  Even  if  the 
cows  break  into  the  corn,  all  hands  of  us,  men  and  boys 
and  dogs,  leave  hoeing  or  haying,  and  drive  them  out. 
And,  by  the  way,  the  frequency  with  which  most  of  us 
have  had  occasion  to  leave  important  labors  to  drive  back 
unruly  cattle,  rendered  lawless  by  neglect  of  our  fences, 
well  illustrates  a  national  characteristic.  We  are  earnest, 
industrious,  and  intent  on  doing.  We  can  look  forward 
to  accomplish  any  labor,  however  difficult,  but  lack  the 
conservatism  which  preserves  the  fruit  of  our  labors — the 
"  old  fogyism  "  which  puts  on  its  spectacles  with  most 
careful  adjustment,  after  wiping  the  glasses  for  a  clear 
eight,  and  at  stated  periods,  revises  its  affairs  to  see  if  some 
screw  has  not  worked  loose.  A  steward  on  a  large  estate, 
or  a  corporation  agent,  paid  for  inspecting  and  superin- 
tending, may  be  relied  upon  to  examine  his  drainage 
works,  and  maintain  them  in  repair  ;  but  no  farmer  in 
this  country,  who  labors  with  his  own  hands,  has  time 
even  for  this  most  essential  duty.  His  policy  is,  to  do  his 
work  now,  while  he  is  intent  upon  it,  and  not  trust  to  fu- 
ture watchfulness. 

We  speak  from  personal  experience  in  this  matter  of 
outfalls.  Our  first  drains  ran  down  into  a  swamp,  and 
the  fall  was  so  slight,  that  the  mains  were  laid  as  low 
as  possible,  so  that  at  every  freshet  they  are  overflowed. 
We  have  many  times,  each  season,  been  compelled  to  go 
down,  with  spade  and  hoe,  and  clear  away  the  mud  which 
has  been  trodden  up  by  cattle  around  the  outlet.  Although 
a  small  river  flows  through  the  pasture,  the  cows  find 


OUTLETS.  183 

amusement,  or  better  water,  about  these  drains,  and  keep 
us  in  constant  apprehension  of  a  total  obstruction  of  our 
works.  "We  propose  to  relieve  ourself  of  this  care,  by 
connecting  the  drains  together,  and  building  one  or  more 
reliable  outlets. 

GRATINGS    OR    SCREENS   AT   THE    OUTLET. 

There  are  many  species  of  "  vermin,"  both  "  creeping 
things"  and  "  slimy  things,  that  crawl  with  legs,"  which 
seem  to  imagine  that  drains  are  constructed  for  their 
especial,  accommodations.  In  dry  times,  it  is  a  favorite 
amusement  of  moles  and  mice  and  snakes,  to  explore  the 
devious  passages  thus  fitted  up  for  them,  and  entering  at 
the  capacious  open  front  door,  they  never  suspect  that  the 
spacious  corridors  lead  to  no  apartments,  that  their  ac- 
commodations, as  they  progress,  grow  "fine  by  degrees 
and  beautifully  less,"  and  that  these  are  houses  with  no 
back  doors,  or  even  convenient  places  for  turning  about 
for  a  retreat.  Unlike  the  road  to  Hades,  the  descent  to 
which  is  easy,  here  the  ascent  is  inviting  ;  though,  alike  in 
both  cases,  "revocare  gradum,  hoc  opus  hie  labor  est" 
They  persevere  upward  and  onward  till  they  come,  in  more 
senses  than  one,  to  "an  untimely  end."  Perhaps  stuck  fast 
in  a  small  pipe  tile,  they  die  a  nightmare  death  ;  or,  per- 
haps overtaken  by  a  shower,  of  the  effect  of  which,  in 
their  ignorance  of  the  scientific  principles  of  drainage, 
they  had  no  conception,  they  are  drowned  before  they  have 
time  for  deliverance  from  the  straight  'in  which  they  find 
themselves,  and  so  are  left,  as  the  poet  strikingly  expresses 
it,  "  to  lie  in  cold  obstruction  and  to  rot." 

In  cold  weather,  water  from  the  drains  is  warmer  than 
the  open  ditch,  and  the  poor  frogs,  reluctant  to  submit  to 
the  law  of  Nature  which  requires  them  to  seek  refuge  in 
mud  and  oblivious  sleep,  in  Winter,  gather  round  the 
outfalls,  as  they  do  about  springs,  to  bask  in  the  warmth 


184:  FAKM  DRAINAGE. 

of  the  running  water.  If  the  flow  is  small,  they  leap  up 
into  the  pipe,  and  follow  its  course  upward.  In  Summer, 
the  drains  furnish  for  them  a  cool  and  shady  retreat  from 
the  mid-day  sun,  and  they  may  be  seen  in  single  file  by 
scores,  at  the  approach  of  an  intruding  footstep,  scrambling 
up  the  pipe.  Dying  in  this  way,  affects  these  creatures, 
as  "sighing  and  grief"  did  Falstaff,  "  blows  them  up  like 
a  bladder;"  and,  like  Sampson,  they  do  more  mischief  in 
their  death,  than  in  all  their  life  together.  They  swell 
up,  and  stop  the  water  entirely,  or  partially  dam  it,  so 
that  the  effect  of  the  work  is  impaired. 

To  prevent  injuries  from  this  source,  there  should  ber 
at  every  outlet,  a  grating  or  screen  of  cast  iron,  or  of 
copper  wire,  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  vermin.  The 
screen  should  be  movable,  so  that  any  accumulation  in 
the  pipe  may  be  removed.  An  arrangement  of  this  kind 
is  shown  in  Fig.  40,  as  used  in  England.  We  know  of 
nothing  of  the  kind  used  in  this  country.  For  ourself, 
we  have  made  of  coarse  wire-netting,  a  screen,  which  is 
attached  to  the  pipe  by  hinges  of  wire.  Holes  may  be 
bored  with  a  bit  through  even  a  hard  tile,  or  a  ]STo.  9 
wire  may  be  twisted  firmly  round  the  end  of  it,  and  the 
screen  thus  secured. 

This  has  thus  far,  been  our  own  poor  and  unsatisfactory 
mode  of  protecting  our  drains.  It  is  only  better  than 
none,  but  it  is  not  permanent,  and  we  hope  to  see  some 
successful  invention  that  may  supply  this  want.  So  far 
as  we  have  observed,  no  such  precaution  is  used  in  this 
country ;  and  in  England,  farmers  and  others  who  take 
charge  of  their  own  drainage  works,  often  run  their  pipes 
into  the  mud  in  an  open  ditch,  and  trust  the  water  to  force 
its  own  passage. 

OF   WELLS    AND   BELIEF   PIPES. 

In  draining  large  tracts  of  land  of  uniform  surface,  it 
is  often  convenient  to  have  single  mains,  or  even  m'nors, 


WELLS    AND   TRAPS.  185 

of  great  length.  Obstructions  are  liable  to  occur  from 
various  causes :  and,  moreover,  there  is  great  satisfaction 
in  being  certain  that  all  is  going  right,  and  in  watching 
the  operation  of  our  subterranean  works.  It  is  a  common 
practice,  and  to  be  commended,  to  so  construct  our  drains, 
that  they  may  be  inspected  at  suspicious  points,  and  that 
so  we  may  know  their  real  condition. 

For  this  purpose,  wells,  or  traps,  are  introduced  at  suit- 
able points,  into  which  the  drains  discharge,  and  from 
which  the  water  proceeds  again  along  its  course. 

These  are  made  of  iron,  or  of  stone  or  brick  work,  of 
any  size  that  may  be  thought  convenient,  secured  by 
covers  that  may  be  removed  at  pleasure. 

Where  there  is  danger  of  obstruction  below  the  wells, 
relief  pipes  may  be  introduced,  or  the'  wells  may  over- 
flow, and  so  discharge  temporarily,  the  drainage  water. 
Tiiese  wells,  sometimes  called  silt  basins,  or  traps,  are 
frequently  used  in  road  drainage,  or  in  sewers  where  large 
deposits  are  made  by  the  drainage  water.  The  sediment 
is  carried  along  and  deposited  in  the  traps,  while  the 
water  flows  past. 

These  traps  are  large  enough  for  a  man  to  enter,  and 
are  occasionally  cleared  of  their  contents. 

When  good  stone,  or  common  brick,  are  at  hand,  occa- 
sional wells  may  be  easily  constructed.  Plank  or  timber 
might  be  used  ;  and  we  have  even  seen  an  oil  cask  made 
to  serve  the  purpose  temporarily.  In  most  parts  of  New 
England,  solid  iron  castings  would  not  be  expensive. 

The  water  of  thorough-drainage  is  usually  as  pure  as 
spring-water,  and  such  wells  may  often  be  conveniently 
used  as  places  for  procuring  water  for  both  man  and  beast, 
a  consideration  we]J  worth  a  place  in  arrangements  so 
permanent  as  those  for  drainage. 

The  following  figures  represent   very  perfect  arrange 
nients  of  this  kind,  ia  actual  use. 


186 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


Plan  of  Cover 


Figs.  41  &  42.— WELL  WITH  SILT  BASIN,  OB  TBAP,  AND  COTEB. 

The  flap  attached  to  a  chain  at  A,  is  designed  to  close 
the  incoming  drain,  so  as  to  keep  back  the  water,  and  thus 
flush  the  drain,  as  it  is  termed,  by  filling  it  with  water, 
and  then  suddenly  releasing  it.  It  is  found  that  by  this 
process,  obstructions  by  sand,  and  by  per-oxide  of  iron, 
may  be  brought  down  from  the  drains,  when  the  flow  is 
n=ually  feeble. 


WELLS    AND   TRAPS.  187 

SMALL    WELLS,    Oil    PEEP-HOLES. 

By  the  significant,  thongli  not  very  elegant  name  of 
peep-holes,  are  meant  openings  at  junctions,  or  other  con- 
venient points,  for  watching  the  pulsations  of  our  subter- 
ranean arteries. 

In  addition  to  the  large  structures  of  wells  and  traps, 
such  as  have  been  represented,  we  need  small  and  cheap 
arrangements,  by  which  we  may  satisfy  ourselves  and  our 
questioning  friends  and  neighbors,  that  every  part  of  our 
buried  treasure,  is  steadily  earning  its  usury.  It  is  really 
gratifying  to  be  able  to  allow  those  who  "  don't  see  how 
water  can  get  into  the  tiles,"  and  who  inquire  so  distrust- 
fully whether  you  "  don't  think  that  land  on  the  hill  would 
be  just  as  dry  without  the  drains,"  to  satisfy  themselves,  by 
actually  seeing,  that  there  is  a  liberal  flow  through  all  the 
pipes,  even  in  the  now  dry  soil.  And  then,  again, 

"  The  best  laid  schemes  o'  mice  an'  men 
Gang  aft  agley." 

and  drains  will  get  obstructed,  by  one  or  other  of  the 
various  means  suggested  in  another  place.  It  is  then  con- 
venient to  be  able  to  ascertain  with  certainty,  and  at  once, 
the  locality  of  the  difficulty,  and  this  may  be  done  by 
means  of  peep-holes. 

These  may  be  formed  of  cast  iron,  or  of  well-burnt 
clay,  or  what  is  called  stone-ware,  of  4,  6,  or  10  inches 
internal  diameter,  and  long  enough  to  reach  from  the 
bottom  of  the  drain  to  the  surface,  or  a  little  above  it. 

The  drain  or  drains,  coming  into  this  little  well,  should 
enter  a  few  inches  above  the  pipe  which  carries  off  the 
water,  so  that  the  incoming  stream  may  be  plainly  seen. 
A  strong  cover  should  be  fitted  to  the  top,  and  secured  so 
as  not  to  cause  injury  to  cattle  at  work  or  feeding  on  the 
land.  The  arrangement  will  be  at  once  seen  by  a  sketch 
on  the  following  page. 


188 


FARM  DKAINAGE. 


Figs.  43  &  44. — SMALL  WELL,  OB  PEEP-HOLE,  AND  COVEE. 

In  our  own  fields,  we  have  adopted  several  expedients 
to  attain  this  object  of  convenient  inspection.  In  one 
case,  where  we  have  a  sub-main,  which  receives  the  small 
drains  of  an  acre  of  orchard,  laid  at  nearly  five  feet  depth, 
we  sunk  two  40-gallon  oil  casks,  one  upon  the  other,  at  the 
junction  of  this  sub-main  with  another,  and  fitted  upon 
the  top  a  strong  wooden  cover.  The  objections  to  this 
contrivance  are,  that  it  is  temporary  ;  that  it  occupies  too 
much  room  ;  and  that  it  is  more  expensive  than  a  well  of 
cast  iron  or  stone-ware  of  proper  size. 

In  another  part  of  the  same  field,  we  had  a  spring  of 
excellent  water,  where,  "  from  the  time  whereof  the 
memory  of  man  runneth  not  to  the  contrary,"  people 
had  fancied  they  found  better  water  to  drink,  than  any- 
where else.  It  is  near  a  ravine,  through  which  a  main 


WELLS    AND   TRAPS. 


189 


drain  is  located,  and  which  is  now  graded  up  into  con- 
venient plow  land. 

To  preserve  this  spring  for  use  in  the  Summer  time,  we 
procured  a  tin-worker  to  make  a  well,  of  galvanized  iron, 
five  feet  long  and  ten  inches  diameter,  into  which  are  con- 
ducted the  drain  and  the  spring.  A  friendly  hand  has 
sketched  it  for  us  very  accurately  ;  thus : 


Figs.  45  &  46.— How  TO  PEESEEVB  A  SPUING  IN  A  DEAINED  FIELD. 

The  spring  is  brought  in  at  a  by  a  few  tiles  laid  into 
the  bank  where  the  water  naturally  bursts  out.  The  pipe 
b  brings  in  the  drain,  which  always  flows  largely,  and  the 
pipe  G  carries  away  the  water.  The  small  dipper,  marked 
d,  hangs  inside  the  well,  and  is  used  by  every  man,v 
woman,  and  boy,  who  passes  that  way.  The  spring  enters 
six  inches  above  the  drain,  for  convenience  in  catching  its 
water  to  drink. 

By  careful  observation  the  present  Winter  of  1858-9, 
the  impression  that  there  is  some  peculiar  quality  in  this 
water  is  confirmed,  for  it  is  ascertained  that  it  is  six 
degrees  warmer  in  cold  weather  than  any  other  water 
upon  the  farm.  The  spring  preserves  a  temperature  of 


190  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

about  47°,  while  the  drain  running  through  the  same  well, 
and  the  other  drains  in  the  field,  and  the  well  at  the  house, 
vary  from  39°  to  42°. 

We  confess  to  the  weakness  of  taking  great  satisfaction 
in  sipping  this  water,  cool  in  Summer  and  warm  in  Winter, 
and  in  watching  the  mingled  streams  of  spring  and  drain- 
age water,  and  listening  as  we  pass  by,  to  their  tinkling 
sound,  which,  like  the  faithful  watchman  of  the  night, 
proclaims  that  "  all  is  well." 

POSITION   AND    SIZE    OF    THE    MAINS. 

Having  fixed  on  the  proper  position  of  the  outlet,  for 
the  whole,  or  any  portion  of  our  work,  the  next  con- 
sideration is  the  location  of  the  drains  that  shall  discharge 
at  that  point.  It  is  convenient  to  speak  of  the  diiferent 
drains  as  mains,  sub-mains,  and  minors.  By  mains,  are 
understood  the  principal  drains,  of  whatever  material,  the 
office  of  which  is,  to  receive  and  carry  away  water 
collected  by  other  drains  from  the  soil.  By  minors,  are 
intended  the  small  drains  which  receive  the  surplus  water 
directly  from  the  soil.  By  sub-mains,  are  meant  such 
intermediate  drains  as  are  frequently  in  large  fields, 
interposed  across  the  line  of  the  minors,  to  receive  their 
discharge,  and  conduct  their  water  to  the  mains. 

They  are  principally  used,  where  there  is  a  greater 
length  of  small  drains  in  one  direction  than  it  is  thought 
expedient  to  use ;  or  where,  from  the  unequal  surface,  it 
is  necessary  to  lay  out  subordinate  systems  of  drains,  to 
reach  particular  localities. 

Whether  after  the  outlet  is  located,  the  mains  or  minors 
should  next  be  laid  out,  is  not  perhaps  very  important. 
The  natural  course  would  seem  to  be,  to  lay  out  the  mains 
according  to  the  surface  formation  of  the  land,  through 
the  principal  hollows  of  the  field,  although  we  have  high 
authority  for  commencing  with  the  minors,  and  allowing 


POSITION,    SIZE,    AND   JUNCTION    OF   DRAINS.  191 

their  appropriate  direction  to  determine  the  location  of 
the  mains. 

This  is,  however,  rather  a  question  of  precedence  and 
etiquette,  than  of  practical  importance.  The  only  safe 
mode  of  executing  so  important  a  work  as  drainage,  is  by 
careful  surveys  by  persons  of  sufficient  skill,  to  lay  out  the 
whole  field  of  operations,  before  the  ground  is  broken ;  to 
take  all  the  levels  ;  to  compare  all  the  different  slope?  ; 
consider  all  the  circumstances,  and  arrange  the  work  as  a 
systematic  whole.  Generally,  there  will  be  no  conflict  of 
circumstances,  as  to  where  the  mains  shall  be  located. 
They  must  be  lower  than  the  minors,  because  they  receive 
their  water.  They  must  ordinarily  run  across  the  direc- 
tion of  the  minors,  either  at  right  angles  or  diagonally, 
because  otherwise  they  cannot  receive  their  discharge. 
If,  then,  in  general,  the  minors,  as  we  assume,  run  down 
the  slope,  the  mains  must  run  at  the  foot  of  the  slope  and 
across  it. 

It  will  be  found  in  practice,  that  all  the  circumstances 
alluded  to,  will  combine  to  locate  the  mains -across  the 
foot  of  regular  slopes ;  and  whether  in  straight  or  curved 
lines,  along  through  the  natural  valleys  of  the  field. 

In  locating  the  mains,  regard  must  always  be  had  to 
the  quantity  of  water  and  to  the  fall.  Where  a  field  is 
of  regular  slope,  and  the  descent  very  slight,  it  will  be 
necessary,  in  order  to  gain  for  the  main  the  requisite  fall, 
to  run  it  diagonally  across  the  bottom  of  the  slope,  thus 
taking  into  it  a  portion  of  the  fall  of  the  slope.  If  the 
fall  requires  to  be  still  more  increased,  often  the  main 
may  be  deepened  towards  the  outlet,  so  as  to  gain  fall 
sufficient,  even  on  level  ground. 

If  the  fall  is  very  slight,  the  size  of  the  main  may  be 
made  to  compensate  in  part  for  want  of  fall,  for  it  will 
not  be  forgotten,  that  the  capacity  of  a  pipe  to  convey 
water  depends  much  on  the  velocity  of  the  current,  and 


192  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

the  velocity  increases  in  proportion  to  the  fall  If  the 
fall  and  consequent  velocity  be  small,  the  water  will 
require  a  larger  drain  to  carry  it  freely  along.  The  size 
of  the  mains  should  be  sufficient  to  convey,  with  such  fall 
as  is  attainable,  the  greatest  quantity  of  water  that  may 
ever  be  expected  to  reach  them.  Beyond  this,  an  increase 
of  size  is  rather  a  disadvantage  than  otherwise,  because  a 
small  flow  of  water  runs  with  more  velocity  when  com- 
pressed in  a  narrow  channel,  than  when  broadly  spread, 
and  so  has  more  power  to  force  its  way,  and  carry  before 
it  obstructing  substances. 

We  have  seen,  in  considering  the  size  of  tiles,  that  in 
laying  the  minor  drains,  their  capacity  to  carry  all  the 
water  that  may  reach  them  is  not  the  only  limit  of  their 
size.  A  one-inch  tile  might  in  many  cases  be  sufficient 
to  conduct  the  water ;  but  the  best  drainers,  after  much 
controversy  on  the  point,  now  all  agree  that  this  is  a  size 
too  small  for  prudent  use,  because  so  small  an  opening  is 
liable  to  be  obstructed  by  a  very  slight  deposit  from  the 
water,  or  by  a  slight  displacement,  and  because  the  joints 
furnish  small  space  for  the  admission  of  water. 

Mains,  however,  being  designed  merely  to  carry  oif 
such  water  as  they  may  receive  from  other  drains,  may  in 
general  be  limited  to  the  size  sufficient  to  convey  such 
water,  at  the  greatest  flow.  It  might  seem  a  natural 
course,  to  proportion  the  capacity  of  the  main  to  the 
capacity  of  the  smaller  -drains  that  fall  into  it;  and  this 
would  be  the  true  rule,  were  the  small  drains  expected  to 
run  full. 

If  our  smallest  drain,  however,  be  of  two-inch,  or  even 
one  and  a  half  inch  bore,  it  can  hardly  be  expected  to  fill 
at  any  time,  unless  of  great  length,  or  in  some  peculiarly 
wet  place.  Considering,  then,  what  quantity  of  water 
will  be  likely  to  be  conducted  into  the  main,  proportion 
the  main  not  to  the  capacity  of  all  the  smaller  drains 


POSITION,    SIZE,    AND   JUNCTION    OF   DRAINS.  193 

leading  into  it,  but  to  the  probable  maximum  flow — not 
to  what  they  might  bring  into  it,  but  to  what  they  will 
bring. 

If  the  mains  be  of  three-inch  pipes,  other  things  being 
equal,  their  capacity  is  nine  times  that  of  a  one-inch  pipe, 
and  two  and  a  quarter  times  the  capacity  of  a  two-inch 
pipe. 

A  three-inch  main  may,  then,  with  equal  fall  and 
directness,  be  safely  relied  on  to  carry  nine  streams  of  water 
equal  each  to  one  inch  diameter,  or  two  and  a  quarter 
streams,  equal  to  a  two-inch  stream.  The  three-inch 
main  will,  in  fact,  from  the  less  amount  of  friction,  carry 
much  more  than  this  proportion. 

The  allowance  to  be  made  for  a  less  fall  in  the  mains, 
has  already  been  adverted  to,  and  must  not  be  overlooked. 
It  is  believed  that  the  capacity  of  a  three  or  four-inch 
pipe  to  convey  water,  is  in  general  likely  to  be  much 
under-estimated. 

It  is  a  common  error,  to  imagine  that  some  large  stone 
water-course  must  be  necessary  to  carry  off  so  large  a  flow 
as  will  be  collected  by  a  system  over  a  ten  or  twenty-acre 
field.  Any  one,  however,  who  has  watched  the  full  flow 
of  even  a  three-inch  pipe,  and  observed  the  water  after  it 
has  fallen  into  a  nearly  level  ditch,  will  be  aware,  that 
what  seems  in  the  ditch  a  large  stream,  impeded  as  it  is 
by  a  rough,  uneven  bottom,  may  pass  through  a  three 
inch  opening  of  smooth,  well -jointed  pipes.  When  we 
consider  that  a  four-inch  pipe  is  four  times  as  capacious 
as  a  two-inch  pipe,  and  sixteen  times  as  large  as  a  one- 
inch  pipe,  we  may  see  that  we  may  accommodate  any 
quantity  of  water  that  may  be  likely  anywhere  to  be 
collected  by  drainage,  without  recourse  to  other  materials 
than  tiles. 

When  one  three  or  four-inch  pipe  is  not  sufficient  to 
convey  the  water,  mains  may  conveniently  be  formed  of 
9 


194 


FARM    DRAINAGE. 


two  or  more  tiles  of  any  form.  A  main  drain  is  some- 
times formed  by  combining  two  horse-shoe  tiles,  with  a 
tile  sole  or  slate  between  them,  to  prevent  slipping,  as  in 
fig.  47. 


Fig.  47. 


Fig.  48. 


Main  Drain  of  two  or  more  Horse-shoe  Tiles. 

The  combinations  represented  in  the  above  figures,  will 
furnish  sufficient  suggestions  to  enable  any  one  to  select 
or  arrange  such  forms  as  may  be  deemed  best  suited  to  the 
case  in  hand.  Where  the  largest  obtainable  tile  is  not 
large  enough,  two  or  more  lines  of  pipes  may  be  laid 
abreast. 

POSITION    OF   THE    MINOR    DRAINS. 

Assuming  that  it  is  desirable  to  run  the  small  drains,  as 
far  as  practicable,  up  and  down  the  slope,  the  following 
directions,  from  the  Cyclopedia  of  Agriculture,  are  given : 

u  There  is  a  very  simple  mode  of  laying  out  these  (the  minor  drains), 
which  will  apply  to  most  cases,  or,  indeed,  to  all.  although  in  some  its 
application  may  be  more  difficult.  The  surface  of  each  field  must  be 
regarded  as  being  made  up  of  one  or  more  planes,  as  the  case  may  be, 
for  each  of  which  the  drains  should  be  laid  out  separately.  Level  lines 
are  to  be  set  out,  a  little  below  the  upper  edge  of  each  of  these  planes, 
and  the  drains  must  be  then  made  to  cross  these  lines  at  right  angles. 
By  this  means,  the  drains  will  run  in  the  line  of  the  greatest  slope,  no 
matter  how  distorted  the  surface  of  the  field  may  be." 

Much  is  said,  in  the  English  books,  at  out    c  furrows,'* 


POSITION,    SIZE,    AND   JUNCTION    OF    DRAINS.  195 

ana  the  "  direction  of  the  furrows,"  in  connection  with 
the  laying  out  of  drains.  Much  of  the  land  in  England, 
especially  in  moist  places,  was  formerly  laid  up  by  re- 
peated plowings,  into  ridges  varying  in  Breadth  from  ten 
to  twenty  feet,  so  as  to  throw  off,  readily,  the  water  from 
the  surface. 

These  ridges  were  sometimes  so  high,  that  two  boys 
in  opposite  furrows,  between  the  ridges,  could  not  see 
each  other.  In  draining  lands  thus  ridged,  it  is  found  far 
more  easy  to  cut  the  ditches  in  the  furrows,  rather  than 
across  or  upon  the  ridges.  After  thorough-drainage,  in 
most  localities,  these  ridges  and  furrows  are  dispensed 
with.  The  fact  is,  probably,  only  important  here,  as  ex- 
plaining the  constant  reference  by  English  writers  to  this 
mode  of  working  the  land. 

Whether  we  shall  drain  "  down  the  furrows,"  or  "  across 
the  ridges,"  is  not  likely  to  be  inquired  of,  by  Americans. 

The  accompanying  diagram  represents  a  field  of  about 
thirty  acres,  as  drained  by  the  owner,  B.  F.  ISTourse,  Esq., 
of  Orrington,  Me.,  a  particular  description  of  which  will 
be  found  in  another  place. 

The  curves  of  the  ends  of  the  minors,  at  their  junction 
with  the  mains,  will  indicate  their  course — the  minors 
curving  always  so  as  to  more  nearly  coincide,  in  course, 
with  the  current  of  water  in  the  mains. 

THE    JUNCTION     OF    DRAINS. 

Much  difficulty  arises  in  practice,  as  to  connecting,  in  a 
secure  and  satisfactory  manner,  the  smaller  with  the  larger 
drains.  It  has  already  been  suggested,  that  the  streams 
should  not  meet  at  right  angles,  but  that  a  bend  should 
be  made  in  the  smaller  drain,  a  few  feet  before  it  enters 
the  main,  so  as  to  introduce  the  water  of  the  small  drain 
in  the  direction  of  the  current  in  the  main.  In  another 
place,  an  instance  is  given  where  it  was  found  that  a 


196  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

quantity  of  water  was  discharged  with  a  turn,  or  junction 
with  a  gentle  curve,  in  100  seconds,  that  required  liO 
seconds  with  a  turn  at  right  angles  ;  and  that  while  run- 
ning direct,  that  is,  without  any  turn,  it  was  discharged  in 
90  seconds.  This  is  given  as  a  mere  illustration  of  the 
principle,  which  is  obvious  enough.  Different  experiments 
would  vary  with  the  velocity,  quantity  of  water,  and 
smoothness  of  the  pipe  ;  but  nothing  is  more  certain,  than 
that  every  change  of  direction  impedes  velocity. 

Thus  we  see  that  if  we  had  but  a  single  drain,  the 
necessary  turns  should  be  curved,  to  afford  the  least  ob- 
struction. 

Where  the  drain  enters  into  another  current,  there  is 
yet  a  further  obstruction,  by  the  meeting  of  the  two 
streams.  Two  equal  streams,  of  similar  velocity  and  size, 
thus  meeting  at  right  angles,  would  have  a  tendency  to 
move  off  diagonally,  if  not  confined  by  the  pipe ;  and, 
confined  as  they  are,  must  both  be  materially  retarded  in 
their  flow.  In  whatever  manner  united,  there  must  bo 
much  obstruction,  if  the  main  is  nearly  full,  at  the  point 
of  junction.  The  common  mode  of  connecting  horse-shoe 
tile-drains  is  shown  thus  : 

Having  no  tiles  made  for 
the  purpose,  we,  at  first,  formed 
the  union  by  means  of  common 
hard  bricks.  Curving  down 
the  small  drain  toward  the  di- 
rection of  the  main,  we  left  a 
space  between  two  tiles  of  the 
rig.  50.— JUNCTION  OF  DRAINS.  main,  of  two  or  three  inches, 
and  brought  down  the  last  tile  of  the  small  drain  to  this 
opening,  placing  under  the  whole  a  flat  stone,  sJate,  or 
bricks,  or  a  plank,  to  keep  all  firm  at  the  bottom.  Then 
we  set  bricks  on  edge  on  all  sides,  and  covered  the  space 


POSITION,    SIZE,    AND   JUNCTION    OF   DRAINS.  197 

at  the  top  with  one  or  more,  as  necessary,  and  secured 
carefully  against  sand  and  the  like. 

We  have  since  procured  branch-pipes  to  be  made  at 

the  tile-works,  such  as  are  in  use  in  Eng- 

<_^a===si-=-B^«A       land,  and  find  them,  much  more  satisfac- 

tory.     The  branches  may  be  made  to  join 

^  the  mains  at  any  angle,  and  it  might  be 

BBANCH  PIPES.  advisable  to  make  this  part  of  both  drains 
larger  than  the  rest,  to  allow  room  for  the  obstructed  waters 
to  unite  peacefully. 

The  mains  should  be  from  three  to  six  inches  deeper 
than  the  minors.  The  fall  from  one  to  the  other  may 
usually  be  made  most  conveniently,  by  a  gradual  descent 
of  three  or  four  feet  to  the  point  of  junction  ;  but  with 
branch-pipes,  the  fall  may  be  nearly  vertical,  if  desired, 
by  turning  the  branch  upward,  to  meet  the  small  pipe. 
It  will  be  necessary,  in  procuring  branches  for  sole- tiles, 
to  bear  in  mind  that  they  are  "  rights  and  lefts,"  and  must 
be  selected  accordingly,  as  the  branch  comes  in  upon  the 
one  or  other  side  of  the  main. 

The  branch  should  enter  the  larger  pipe  not  level  with 
the  bottom,  but  as  high  as  possible,  to  give  an  inch  fall  to 
the  water  passing  out  of  the  branch  into  the  main,  to  pre- 
vent possible  obstruction  at  the  junction. 

DRAINAGE    INTO   WELLS,    OR  SWALLOW    HOLES. 

In  various  parts  of  our  country,  there  are  lands  lying 
too  flat  for  convenient  drainage  in  the  ordinary  methods, 
or  too  remote  from  any  good  outlet,  or  perhaps  enclosed 
by  lands  of  others  who  will  not  consent  to  an  outfall 
through  their  domain,  where  the  drainage  water  may  be 
discharged  into  wells. 

In  the  city  of  Washington,  on  Capitol  Hill,  it  is  a  com- 
mon practice  to  drain  cellars  into  what  are  termed  "  dry 
wells."  Tho  surface  formation  is  a  close  red  clay,  of  a 


198  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

few  feet  thickness,  and  then  comes  a  stratum  of  coarse 
gravel ;  and  the  wells  for  water  are  sunk  often  as  deep  as 
sixty  feet,  indicating  that  the  water-table  lies  very  low. 
The  heavy  storms  and  showers  fill  the  surface  soil  beyond 
saturation,  and  the  water  'gushes  out,  literally,  into  the 
cellars  and  other  low  places.  A  dry  well,  sunk  through 
the  clay,  conducts  this  water  into  the  gravel  bed,  and  this 
carries  it  away.  This  idea  is  often  applied  to  land 
drainage.  It  is  believed  that  there  are  immense  tracts  of 
fertile  land  at  the  West,  upon  limestone,  where  the  surface 
might  readily  be  relieved  of  surplus  water,  by  conducting 
the  mains  into  wells  dug  for  the  purpose.  In  some  places, 
there  are  openings  called  "  sink-holes,"  caused  by  the  sink- 
ing of  masses  of  earth,  as  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  city 
of  St.  Louis,  which  would  afford  outlets  for  all  the  water 
that  could  be  poured  into  them.  In  the  Report  of  the 
Tioga  County  Agricultural  Society  for  1857,  it  is  said  in 
the  Country  Gentleman,  that  instances  are  given,  where 
swamps  were  drained  through  the  clay  bottom  into  the 
underlying  gravelly  soil,  by  digging  wells  and  filling  them 
with  stones. 

In  Fig.  7,  at  page  82,  is  shown  a  "  fault"  in  the  stratifi- 
cation of  the  earth;  which  faults,  it  is  said,  so  completely 
carry  off  water,  that  wells  cannot  be  sunk  so  as  to  reach 
it. 

Mr.  Denton  says  that  in  several  parts  of  England, 
advantage  is  taken  of  the  natural  drainage  existing 
beneath  wet  clay  soils,  by  concentrating  the  drains  to 
holes,  called  "swallow-holes."  He  says  this  practice  is 
open  to  the  objection  that  those  holes  do  not  always  absorb 
the  water  with  sufficient  rapidity,  and  so  render  the 
drainage  for  a  time,  inoperative. 

These  wells  are  liable,  too,  to  be  obstructed  in  their 
operation  by  their  bottoms  being  puddled  with  the  clay 
carried  into  them  by  the  water,  and  so  becoming  imper- 


POSITION,    SIZE,    AND   JUNCTION   OF   DRAINS.  199 

vious.  This  point  would  require  occasional  attention,  and 
the  removal  of  sucli  deposits. 

This  principle  of  drainage  was  alluded  to  at  the 
American  Institute,  February  14,  1859,  by  Professor 
Nash.  He  states,  that  there  are  large  tracts  of  land  having 
clay  soil,  with  sand  or  gravel  beneath  the  clay,  which  yet 
need  drainage,  and  suggests  that  this  may  be  effected  by 
merely  boring  frequent  holes,  and  filling  them  with  peb- 
bles, without  ditches.  In  all  such  soils,  if  the  mode 
suggested  prove  insufficient,  large  wells  of  proper  depth, 
stoned  up,  or  otherwise  protected,  might  obviously  serve 
as  cheap  and  convenient  outlets  for  a  regular  system  of 
pipe  or  stone  drains. 

Mr.  Bergen,  at  the  same  meeting,  stated  that  such 
clayey  soil,  based  on  gravel,  was  the  character  of  much 
of  the  land  on  Long  Island ;  and  we  cannot  doubt 
that  on  the  prairies  of  the  West,  where  the  wells 
are  frequently  of  great  depth  to  obtain  water  for  use, 
wells  or  swallow-holes  to  receive  it,  may  often  be  found 
useful.  Whenever  the  water-line  is  twenty  or  thirty  feet 
below  the  surface,  it  is  certain  that  it  will  require  a  large 
amount  of  water  poured  in  at  the  surface  of  a  well  to 
keep  it  filled  for  any  considerable  length  of  time.  The 
same  principle  that  forces  water  into  wells,  that  is,  pres- 
sure from  a  higher  source,  will  allow  its  passage  out  when 
admitted  at  the  top. 

We  close  this  chapter  with  a  letter  from  Mr.  Denton. 
The  extract  referred  to,  has  been  here  omitted,  because 
we  have  already,  in  the  chapter  preceding  this,  given  Mr. 
Denton's  views,  expressed  more  fully  upon  the  same 
subject,  with  his  own  illustrations. 

It  should  be  stated  that  the  letter  was  in  reply  to 
inquiries  upon  particular  points,  which,  although  discon- 
nected, are  all  of  interest,  when  touched  upon  by  one 
whose  opinions  are  so  valuable. 


200 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


"  LONDON,  52  Parliament  Street,  Westminster,  S.  W. 

"  MY  DEAR  SIR; — I  have  received  your  letter  of  the  17th  August, 
and  hasten  to  reply  to  it. 

"  I  am  gratified  at  the  terms  in  which  you  speak  of  my  roughly- writ- 
ten {  Essays  on  Land  Drainage.'  If  you  have  not  seen  my  published 
letter  to  Lord  Berners,  and  my  recent  essay  '  On  the  Advantages  of  a 
Daily  Record  of  Rain-fall,7  I  should  much  like  you  to  look  over  them/ 
for  my  object  in  both  has  been  to  check  the  uniformity  of  treatment 
which  too  much  prevails  with  those  who  are  officially  called  upon  to 
direct  draining,  and  who  still  treat  mixed  soils  and  irregular  surfaces 
pretty  much  in  the  same  way  as  homogeneous  clays  and  even  surfaces, 
the  only  difference  being,  that  the  distance  between  the  drains  is 
increased.  We  have  now,  without  doubt,  arrived  at  that  point  in  th<? 
practice  of  draining  in  this  country,  which  necessitates  a  revision  of  all 
the  principles  and  rules  which  have  been  called  into  force  by  the 
Drainage  Acts,  and  the  institution  of  the  Drainage  Commission,  whose 
duty  it  is  to  administer  those  Acts,  and  to  protect  the  interests  of 
Reversioners. 

*'  This  protection  is,  in  a  great  measure,  performed  by  the  interven- 
tion of  '  Inspectors  of  Drainage,'  whose  subordinate  duty  it  is  to  see  that 
the  improvements  provisionally  sanctioned  are  carried  out  according  to 
certain  implied,  if  not  fixed,  rules.  This  is  done  by  measuring  depth 
and  distance,  which  tends  to  a  parallel  system  (4  feet  deep)  in  all  soils^ 
which  was  Smitlrof  Deanston's  notion,  only  his  drains  were  shallower, 
i.e..  from  2  to  3  feet  deep. 

"  Some  rules  were  undoubtedly  necessary  when  the  Commissioners 
first  commenced  dispensing  the  public  money,  and  I  do  not  express  my 
objection  to  the  absurd  position  to  which  these  rules  are  bringing  us, 
from  any  disrespect  to  them,  nor  with  an  idea  that  any  better  course 
could  have  been  followed  by  the  Government,  in  the  first  instance, 
than  the  adoption  of  the  :  Parkes — Smith  frequent  drain  system.'  This 
system  was  correctly  applied,  and  continues  to  be  correctly  applied,  to 
absorbent  and  retentive  soils  requiring  the  aeration  of  frequent  drains 
to  counteract  their  retentive  nature  ;  but  it  is  altogether  misapplied 
when  adopted  in  the  outcropping  surfaces  of  the  free  water-bearing 
strata,  which,  though  equally  wet.  are  frequently  drained  by  a  com- 
paratively few  drains,  at  less  than  half  the  cost. 

"  The  only  circumstance  that  can  excuse  the  indiscriminate  adoption 
of  a  parallel  system,  is  the  fact,  that  all  drains  do  some  good,  and  the 
thances  of  a  cure  being  greater  in  proportion  to  tho  number  of  drains^ 


POSITION,    SIZE,    AND   JUNCTION    OF   DRAINS.  201 

it  was  not  necessary  to  insist  upon  that  judgment  which  ten  year*' 
experience  should  now  give. 

"  My  views  on  this  point  will  perhaps  be  best  understood  by  the 
following  extract  from  an  address  I  recently  delivered.  [Extract 
c/mitted.  see  p.  161]. 

*  *  *  "  I  use  one  an(j  a  hajf  inch  pipes  for  the  upper  end  of 
drains  (though  I  prefer  two-inch),  one  half  being  usually  one  and  a  half 
and  the  other  half  two-inch.  This  for  minor  drains  ;  the  mains  run  up 
to  9  or  10  inches,  and  even  18  inches  in  size,  according  to  their  service. 

"  There  is  no  doubt  sufficient  capacity  in  one-inch  pipes  for  minor 
drains ;  but,  inasmuch  as  agricultural  laborers  are  not  mathematical 
scholars,  and  are  apt  to  lay  the  pipes  without  precise  junctions,  it  is 
best  to  have  the  pipes  so  large  as  to  counteract  that  degree  of  careless- 
ness which  cannot  be  prevented.  The  ordinary  price  of  pipes  in  this 
country  will  run  thus :  +  meaning  above,  and  —  below,  the  prices 
named  : 

ll  inch 15s. + 

2  "     20s.- 

3  "     30s. 

4  "     40s.  + 

5  " 50s. + 

6  " 60s.  + 

"The  price  of  cutlmg  clays  4  feet  deep,  will  vary  from  Id.  to  Hd. 
per  yard,  according  to  density  and  mixture  with  stone :  and  the  price  of 
cutting  in  mixed  soils  will  vary  from  l^d.  to  6d.,  according  to  the  quan- 
tity of  pick- work  and  rock,  and  with  respect,  also,  to  the  price  of  agri- 
cultural labor.  (See  my  tabular  table  of  cost  in  Land  Drainage  %,nd 
Drainage  Systems.) 

" I  should  have  thought  it  would  have  been  quite  worth  the  while 
of  the  American  Government  to  have  had  a  farm  of  about  500  acres, 
drained  by  English  hands,  under  an  experienced  engineer,  as  a  practi- 
tical  sample  of  English  work,  for  the  study  of  American  agriculturists, 
with  every  drain  laid  down  on  a  plan,  with  the  sizes  of  the  pipes,  and 
all  details  of  soil,  md  prices  of  labor  and  material,  set  forth. 
"  I  am,  dear  Sir, 

"  Yours  very  faith;  illy, 

"The  HON.  H.  F.  FRENCH.  Exeter.          "  J.  BAILED   DFNTON." 


202 


FAKM   DRAINAGE. 


OHAPTEE  IX. 


THE   COST   OF   TILES TILE   MACHINES. 

Prices  far  too  high  ;  Albany  Prices.— Length  of  Tiles.— Cost  in  Suffolk  Co., 
England. —  Waller's  Machine. — Williams'  Machine. — Cost  of  Tiles  compared 
with  Bricks. — Mr.  Denton's  Estimate  of  Cost.— Other  Estimates.— Two- 
inch  Tiles  can  be  Made  as  Cheaply  as  Bricks. — Process  of  Rolling  Tiles. — 
Tile  Machines — Descriptions  of  Daines'. — Pratt  &  Bro.'s. 

THE  prices  at  which  tiles  are  sold  is  only,  as  the  lawyers 
say,  primd  facie  evidence  of  their  cost.  It  seems  to  us, 
that  the  prices  at  which  tiles  have  thus  far  been  sold  in 
this  country,  are  very  far  above  those  at  which  they  may 
be  profitably  manufactured,  when  the  business  is  well  un- 
derstood, and  pursued  upon  a  scale  large  enough  to  justify 
the  use  of  the  best  machinery.  The  following  is  a  copy 
of  the  published  prices  of  tiles  at  the  Albany  Tile  Works, 
and  the  same  prices  prevail  throughout  JSTew  England,  so 
far  as  known  : 


Horse-shoe  Tile— Pieces. 

2i  inclies  rise ..  $12  per  1000 

31      "         " 15  " 

4*      "         " 18  " 

5^       "         " 40  « 

64      "         " 60  " 

74      "         "  .  75  " 


Sole-  Tile— Pieces. 

2  inches  rise $12  per  1000, 

3  "       "    18  i: 

4  "       "    40  " 

5  «       "    60  " 

6  "       "    80  " 

8       "       "    .  125  " 


Few  round  pipe-tiles  have  yet  been  used  in  this  country, 
although  they  are  the  kind  generally  preferred  by  engi- 
neers in  England.  The  prices  of  round  tiles  would  vary 
little  from  those  of  sole- tiles. 

Tiles  are  usually  cut  fourteen  inches  long,  and  shorten, 


COST   OF   TILES.  203 

m  drying  and  burning,  to  about  twelve  and  a  half  inches, 
so  that,  with  breaking  and  other  casualties,  they  may  be 
calculated  to  lay  about  one  foot  each  ;  that  is  to  say,  1,000 
tiles  may  be  expected  to  lay  1,000  feet  of  drains. 

To  assist  those  who  desire  to  manufacture  tiles  for  sale, 
or  for  private  use,  it  is  proposed  to  give  such  information 
as  has  been  gathered  from  various  sources  as  to  the  cost 
of  making,  and  the  selling  prices  of  tiles,  in  England. 
The  following  is  a  memorandum  made  at  the  residence  of 
Mr.  Thomas  Crisp,  at  Butley  Abbey,  in  Suffolk  Co.,  Eng., 
from  information  given  the  author  on  the  8th  of  July, 
1857  : 

"  Mr.  Crisp  makes  his  own  tiles,  and  also  supplies  his 
neighbors  who  need  them.  He  sells  one  and  a  half  inch 
pipes  at  12s.  ($3)  per  1,000.  He  pays  5s.  ($1.25)  per 
1,000  for  having  them  made  and  burnt.  His  machine  is 
Waller's  patent,  No.  22,  made  by  Garrett  and  Son,  Leiston, 
Saxemundham,  Suffolk.  It  works  by  a  lever,  makes  five 
one  and  a  half  inch  pipes  at  once,  or  three  sole-tiles  about 
two-inch.  The  man  at  work  said,  that  he,  with  a  man  to 
carry  away,  &c.,  could  make  4,000  one  and  a  half  inch 
pipes  per  day.  They  used  no  screen,  but  cut  the  clay 
with  a  wire.  The  machine  cost  £25  (about  $125).  At  the 
kiln,  which  is  permanent,  the  tiles  are  set  on  end,  and 
bricks  with  them  in  the  same  kiln.  They  require  less  heat 
than  bricks,  and  cost  about  half  as  much  as  bricks  here, 
which  are  moulded  ten  inches  by  five. 

"  Two  girls  were  loading  bricks  into  a  horse-cart,  and 
two  women  receiving  them,  and  setting  them  in  the 
kiln.  They  made  roof-tiles  with  the  same  machine,  and 
also  moulded  large  ones  by  hand.  The  wages  of  the  womec 
are  about  8d.  (sixteen  cents)  per  day." 

At  the  exhibition  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society,  i& 
England,  the  author  saw  Williams'  Tile  Machine  in  oper- 
ation, and  -yas  there  informed  by  the  exhibitor,  who  said 


204  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

he  was  a  tile-maker,  that  it  requires  five-sevenths  as  much 
coal  to  burn  1,000  two-inch  tiles,  as  1,000  bricks — the  size 
of  bricks  being  10  by  5  ;  and  he  declared,  that  lie,  with 
one  boy,  could  make  with  the  machine,  7,000  two-inch 
tiles  per  day,  after  the  clay  is  prepared.  Of  course,  one 
other  person,  at  least,  must  be  employed  to  carry  off  the 
tiles. 

Mr.  Denton  gives  his  estimates  of  the  prices  at  which 
pipe-tiles  may  be  procured  in  England,  as  follows — the 
prices,  which  he  gives  in  English  currency,  being  trans- 
lated into  our  own  : 

"  When  ordinary  agricultural  labor  is  worth  $2  50  per  week,  pipes 
half  one  and  a  half  inch,  and  half  two-inch,  may  be  taken  at  an  average 
cost  of  $4  38  per  1,000.  When  labor  is  $3  00  per  week,  the  pipes  will 
average  $5  00  per  1,000,  and  when  labor  is  $3  50,  they  will  rise  to 
$5  62." 

He  adds :  "  In  giving  the  above  average  cost  of  materials,  those  dis- 
tricts are  excluded  from  consideration,  where  clay  suitable  for  pipes, 
exists  in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  coal-pits,  which  must  necessarily 
reduce  the  cost  of  producing  them  very  considerably." 

Taking  the  averages  of  several  careful  estimates  of  the 
cost  of  tiles  and  bricks,  from  the  "  Cyclopaedia  of  Agri- 
culture," we  have  the  price  of  tiles  in  England  about  $5 
per  1,000,  and  the  price  of  bricks  $7.87,  from  which  the 
duty  of  5s.  6d.  should  be  deducted,  leaving  the  average 
price  of  bricks  $6.50.  Upon  tiles  there  is  no  such  duty. 
Bricks  in  the  United  States  are  made  of  different  sizes, 
varying  from  8  X  4  in.  to  the  English  standard  10  X  5  in. 
Perhaps  a  fair  average  price  for  bricks  of  the  latter  size, 
would  be  not  far  from  $5  per  1,000  ;  certainly  below  $6.50 
per  1,000.  There  is  no  reason  why  tiles  may  not  be  manu- 
factured in  the  United  States,  as  cheaply,  compared  with 
the  prices  of  bricks,  as  in  England  ;  and  it  is  quite  clear 
that  tiles  of  the  siies  named,  are  far  cheaper  there  than 
common  bricks. 

What  is  wanted  in  this  country  is,  first,  a  demand  suf 


TILE    MACHINES.  205 

ficient  to  authorize  the  establishment  oi  works  extensive 
enough  to  make  tiles  at  the  best  advantage  ;  next,  com- 
petent skill  to  direct  and  perform  the  labor  ;  and,  finally, 
the  best  machinery  and  fixtures  for  the  purpose.  It  is 
conl.dently  predicted,  that,  whenever  the  business  of  tile- 
making  becomes  properly  established,  the  ingenuity  of 
American  machinists  will  render  it  easy  to  manufacture 
tiles  at  English  prices,  notwithstanding  the  lower  price  of 
labor  there ;  and  that  we  shall  be  supplied  with  small  tiles 
in  all  parts  of  the  country  at  about  the  current  prices  of 
bricks,  or  at  about  one  half  the  present  Albany  prices  of 
tiles,  as  given  at  the  head  of  this  chapter.  It  should  be 
Mentioned  here,  perhaps,  that,  in  England,  it  is  common 
to  burn  tiles  and  bricks  together  in  the  same  kiln,  placing 
the  tiles  away  from  the  hottest  parts  of  the  furnace ;  as, 
being  but  about  half  an  inch  in  thickness,  they  require 
less  heat  to  burn  them  than  bricks. 

In  the  estimates  of  labor  in  making  tiles  in  England,  a 
small  item  is  usually  included  for  "  rolling."  Round 
pipes  are  chiefly  used  in  England.  When  partly  dried, 
they  are  taken  up  on  a  round  stick,  and  rolled  upon  a 
small  table,  to  preserve  their  exact  form.  Tiles  usually 
flatten  somewhat  in  drying,  which  is  not  of  importance  in 
any  but  round  pipes,  but  those  ought  to  be  uniform.  By 
this  process  of  rolling,  great  exactness  of  shape,  and  a 
great  degree  of  smoothness  inside,  are  preserved. 

TILE   MACHINES. 

Drainage  with  tiles  is  a  new  branch  of  husbandry  ir 
America.  The  cost  of  tiles  is  now  a  great  obstacle  iu 
prosecuting  much  work  of  this  kind  which  land-ownei? 
desire  to  accomplish.  The  cost  of  tiles,  and  so  the  cost 
of  drainage,  depends  very  much — it  may  be  said,  chiefly 
— upon  the  perfection  of  the  machinery  for  tile-making ; 
and  here,  as  almost  everywhere  else,  agriculture  and  the 


206  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

mechanic  arts  go  hand  in  hand.  Labor  is  much  dearer  in 
America  than  in  Europe,  and  there  is,  therefore,  more 
occasion  here  than  there,  for  applying  mechanical  power 
to  agriculture.  We  can  have  no  cheap  drainage  until  we 
have  cheap  tiles ;  and  we  can  have  cheap  tiles  only  by 
having  them  made  with  the  most  perfect  machinery,  and 
at  the  lowest  prices  at  which  competing  manufacturers, 
who  understand  their  business,  can  afford  them. 

In  the  preceding  remarks  on  the  cost  of  tiles,  may  be 
found  estimates,  which  will  satisfy  any  thinking  man  that 
tiles  have  not  yet  been  sold  in  America  at  reasonably  low 
prices. 

To  give  those  who  may  desire  to  establish  tileries,  either 
for  public  or  private  supply,  information,  which  cannot 
readily  be  obtained  without  great  expense  of  English 
books,  as  to  the  prices  of  tile  machines,  it  is  now  proposed 
to  give  some  account  of  the  best  English  machines,  and 
of  such  American  inventions  as  have  been  brought  to 
notice. 

It  is  of  importance  that  American  machinists  and  in- 
ventors should  be  apprised  of  the  progress  that  has  been 
made  abroad  in  perfecting  tile  machines ;  because,  as  the 
subject  attracts  attention,  the  ingenuity  of  the  universal 
Yankee  nation  will  soon  be  directed  toward  the  discovery 
of  improvements  in  all  the  processes  of  tile-making.  Tiles 
were  made  by  hand  long  before  tile  machines  were 
invented. 

A  Mr.  Read,  in  the  "  Royal  Agricultural  Journal,1' 
claims  to  have  used  pipe  tiles  as  early  as  1795,  made  by 
hand,  and  formed  on  a  round  stick.  !N"o  machine  for 
making  tiles  is  described,  before  that  of  Mr.  Beart's,  in 
1840,  by  which  "  common  tile  and  sole  (not  pipes  or 
tubes)  were  made."  This  machine,  however,  was  of  simple 
structure,  and  not  adapted  to  the  varieties  of  tiles  now 
used. 


TILE   MACHINES.  207 

All  tile  machines  seem  to  operate  on  the  same  general 
principle — that  of  forcing  wet  clay,  of  the  consistency  <f 
that  used  in  brick-making,  through  apertures  of  the  desired 
shape  and  size.  To  make  the  mass  thus  forced  through 
the  aperture,  hollow,  the  hole  must  have  a  piece  of  metal 
in  the  centre  of  it,  around  which  the  clay  forms,  as  it  is 
pushed  along.  This  centre  piece  is  kept  in  position  by 
one  or  two  thin  pieces  of  iron,  which  of  course  divide  the 
clay  which  passes  over  them,  but  it  unites  again  as  it  is 
forced  through  the  die,  and  comes  out  sound,  and  is  then 
cut  off,  usually  by  hand,  by  means  of  a  small  wire,  of  the, 
required  length,  about  fourteen  inches. 

Tile  machines  work  either  vertically  or  horizontally. 
The  most  primitive  machine  which  came  to  the  author's 
notice  abroad,  was  one  which  we  saw  on  our  way  from 
London  to  Mr.  Mechi's  place.  It  was  a  mere  upright 
cylinder,  of  some  two  feet  height,  and  perhaps  eight 
inches  diameter,  in  which  worked  a  piston.  The  clay 
was  thrown  into  the  cylinder,  and  the  piston  brought 
down  by  means  of  a  brake,  like  an  old-fashioned  pump, 
and  a  single  round  pipe-tile  forced  out  at  the  bottom. 
The  force  employed  was  one  man  and  two  boys.  One 
boy  screened  the  clay,  by  passing  through  it  a  wire  in 
various  directions,  holding  the  wire  by  the  ends,  a>d 
cutting  through  the  mass  till  he  had  found  all  the  small 
stones  contained  in  it.  The  man  threw  the  masses  thus  pre- 
pared, into  the  cylinder,  and  put  on  the  brake,  and  the  other 
boy  received  the  tiles  upon  a  round  stick,  as  they  came 
down  through  the  die  at  the  bottom,  and  laid  them  away. 
The  cylinder  held  clay  enough  to  make  several,  perhaps 
twenty,  two-inch  pipes.  The  work  was  going  on  in  a  shed 
without  a  floor,  and  upon  a  liberal  estimate,  the  whole 
establishment,  including  shed  and  machine,  could  not 
cost  more  than  fifty  dollars.  Yet,  on  this  simple  plan, 
tiles  were  moulded  much  more  rapidly  than  bricks  were 


208  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

made  in  the  same  yard,  where  they  were  moulded  singly, 
as  they  usually  are  in  England.  It  wras  said  that  thia 
force  could  thus  mould  about  1,800  small  tiles  per  day. 

This  little  machine  seems  to  be  the  same  described  by 
Mr.  Parkes  as  in  general  use  in  1843,  in  Kent  and  Suffolk 
Counties 

Most  of  the  tile  machines  now  in  use  in  England  and 
America,  are  so  constructed,  as  to  force  out  the  tiles  upon 
a  horizontal  ^rame-work,  about  five  two-inch,  or  three 
three-inch  pipes  abreast.  The  box  to  contain  the  clay 
may  be  upright  or  horizontal,  and  the  power  may  be 
applied  to  a  wheel,  by  a  crank  turned  by  a  man,  or  by 
lorse,  steam,  or  water  power,  according  to  the  extent  of 
the  w^orks. 

We  saw  at  the  Exhibition  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society,  at  Salisbury,  in  England,  in  July,  1857,  the 
"  pipe  and  tile  machine,"  of  "W.  Williams,  of  Bedford. 
It  was  in  operation,  for  exhibition,  and  was  worked  by 
one  man,  who  said  he  was  a  tile  maker,  and  that  he  and 
one  boy  could  make  with  the  machine  7.000  two-inch 
tiles  per  day,  after  the  clay  was  prepared  in  the  pug  mill. 
Four  tiles  were  formed  at  once,  by  clay  passed  through 
four  dies,  and  the  box  holds  clay  enough  for  thirty-two 
two-inch  tiles,  so  that  thirty-two  are  formed  as  quickly  as 
they  can  be  removed,  and  as  many  more,  as  soon  as  the 
box  can  be  refilled. 

The  size,  No.  3,  of  this  machine,  such  as  we  then  saw 
in  operation,  and  which  is  suitable  for  common  use,  costs 
at  Bedford  $88.50,  with  one  set  of  dies ;  and  the  extra 
dies,  for  making  three,  four,  and  six-inch  pipes,  and  other 
forms,  if  desired,  writh  the  horses^  as  they  are  called,  for 
removing  the  tiles,  cost  about  five  dollars  each. 

This,  like  most  other  tile  machines,  is  adapted  to  making 
tiles  for  roofs,  much  used  in  England  instead  of  shingles 
or  slates,  as  well  as  for  draining  purposes. 

There  are  several  machines  now  in  use  in  England 


TILE   MACHINES.  20l> 

namely :  Etheridge's,  Clayton's,  Scragg's,  Whitehoad's, 
and  Garrett's — either  of  which  would  be  satisfactory, 
according  to  the  amount  of  work  desired. 

"We  have  in  America  several  patented  mach  nes  for 
making  tiles,  of  the  comparative  merits  of  wrhich  we  are 
unable  to  give  a  satisfactory  judgment.  We  will,  how- 
ever, allude  to  two  or  three,  advising  those  who  are  desir- 
ous to  purchase,  to  make  personal  examination  for  them- 
selves. We  are  obliged  to  rely  chiefly  on  the  statements 
of  the  manufacturers  for  our  opinions. 

Daines'  American  Drain  Tile  Machine  is  manufactured 
at  Birmingham,  Michigan,  by  John  Daines.  This  machine 
is  in  use  in  Exeter,  N.  H.,  close  by  the  author's  residence, 
and  thus  far  proves  satisfactory.  The  price  of  it  is  about 
$100,  and  the  weight,  about  five  hundred  pounds.  It 
occupies  no  more  space  than  a  common  three-and-a-half 
foot  table,  and  is  worked  by  a  man  at  a  crank.  It  is 
capable  of  turning  out,  by  man  power,  about  two  hundred 
and  fifty  two-inch  tiles  in  an  hour,  after  the  clay  is  prepared 
in  a  pug  mill.  Horse  or  water  power  can  be  readily 
attached  to  it. 

We  give  a  drawing  of  it,  not  because  we  are  sure  it  is 
the  best,  but  because  we  are  sure  it  is  a  good  machine, 
and  to  illustrate  the  principle  upon  which  all  these 
machines  are  constructed. 

Pratt's  Tile  Machine  is  manufactured  at  Canandaigua, 
New  York,  by  Pratt  &  Brothers,  and  is  in  use  in  various 
places  in  that  State  as  well  as  elsewhere.  This  machine 
differs  from  Daines'  in  thte  essential  matter,  that  here  the 
clay  is  piigged,  or  tempered,  and  formed  into  tiles  at  one 
operation,  while  with  Daines'  machine,  the  clay  is  first 
passed  through  a  pug  mill,  as  it  is  for  making  bricks  ia 
the  common  process. 

Pratt's  machine  is  worked  by  one  or  two  horses,  or  by 
steam  or  water  power,  as  is  convenient.  The  price  of  the 
smaller  size,  worked  by  one  horse,  is  $150,  and  the  price 


210  FAIiM    DRAINAGE. 

of  the  larger  size,  worked  by  two  horses,  $200.     Professor 
Mapes  says  he  saw  this  machine  in  operation  and  considers 


Fig.  58.— PRATT'S  TILE  MACHINE. 

it  "  perfect  in  all  its  parts."  The  patentees  claim  that  Uey 
can  make,  with  the  one-horse  machine,  5,000  large  tiles  a 
day.  They  state  also  that  "two  horses  will  make  tiles 
about  as  cheap  as  bricks  are  usually  made,  and  as  fast, 
with  the  large-sized  machine." 

These  somewhat  indefinite  statements  are  all  that  we 
can  give,  at  present,  of  the  capacity  of  the  machines.  We 
should  have  no  hesitation  in  ordering  a  Pratt  machine 
were  we  desirous  of  entering  into  an  extensive  business  of 
Tile-making,  and  we  should  feel  quite  safe  with  a  Daines' 
machine  for  a  more  limited  manufacture. 


S.  C.  Salisbury,  at  the  Novelty  Works,  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  is  manufacturing  a  machine  for  making  tiles 
and  bricks,  which  exhibits  some  new  and  peculiar  features, 
worthy  of  attention  by  those  who  propose  to  purchase  tile 
machines.  Prof.  Mapes  expresses  the  confident  opinion 
that  this  machine  excels  all  others,  in  its  capacity  to  form 
tiles  with  rapidity  and  economy.  "We  have  examined  only 
a  working  model.  It  is  claimed  that  the  large  size,  with 
horse-power,  will  make  20,000  two-inch  tiles  per  day,  and 
the  hand-power  machine  3,000  per  day.  We  advise  tile 
makers  to  examine  all  these  machines  in  operation^  before 
purchasing  either. 


COST   OF   DRAINAGE.  21? 


CHAPTEK    X. 

THE      COST      OF      DRAINAGE. 

Draining  no  more  expensive  than  Fencing.  —  Engineering.  —  Guessing  not 
accurate  enough. — Slight  Fall  sufficient. — Instances. — Two  Inches  to  One 
Thousand  Feet. — Cost  of  Excavation  and  Filling. — Narrow  Tools  required. 
— Tables  of  Cubic  contents  of  Drains. — Cost  of  Drains  on  our  own  Farm. — 
Cost  of  Tiles.— Weight  and  Freight  of  Tiles.— Cost  of  Outlets.- Cost  of 
Collars.— rSmallor  Tiles  used  with  Collars. — Number  of  Tiles  to  the  Acre, 
with  Tables. — Length  of  Tiles  varies. — Number  of  Rods  to  the  Acre  at 
different  Distances. — Final  Estimate  of  Cost. — Comparative  Cost  of  Tile- 
Drains  and  Stone-Drains. 

A  PRUDENT  man,  intending  to  execute  a  work,  whether 
it  be  "  to  build  a  tower,"  or  drain  a  field,  "sitteth  down 
first  and  counteth  the  cost,  whether  he  hath  sufficient  to 
finish  it."  There  is  good  sense  and  discretion  in  the  in- 
qnisitiveness  which  suggests  so  often  the  inquiry,  "  How 
much  does  it  cost  to  drain  an  acre?"  or,  "  How  much 
does  it  cost  a  rod  to  lay  drains?"  These  questions  cannot 
be  answered  so  briefly  as  they  are  asked ;  yet  much  in- 
formation can  be  given,  which  will  .aid  one  who  will 
investigate  the  subject. 

The  process  of  drainage  is  expensive,  as  compared  with 
the  price  of  land  in  our  new  settlements ;  but  its  cost  will 
not  alarm  those  who  have  been  accustomed  to  see  the 
improvements  made  in  New  England  upon  well  cultivated 
farms.  Compared  with  the  labor  and  cost  of  building 
and  maintaining  FENCES  upon  the  highways,  and  in  the 
subdivisions  of  lots,  common  in  the  Eastern  States,  the 


212  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

drainage  of  land  is  a  small  matter.  We  see  in  many 
places  long  stretches  of  faced  walls,  on  the  line  of  our 
roads  near  towns  and  villages,  which  cost  from  two  to  iivre 
dollars  per  rod.  Our  common  "stone  walls"  in  these 
States  cost  about  one  dollar  per  rod  to  build  originally  ; 
and  almost  any  kind  of  wooden  fence  costs  as  much.  Upon 
fences,  there  is  occasion  for  annual  repairs,  while  drains 
properly  laid,  are  permanent. 

These  suggestions  are  thrown  out,  that  farmers  may  not 
be  alarmed  without  cause,  at  the  high  cash  estimates  of 
the  cost  of  drainage  operations.  Money  comes  slowly  to 
farmers,  and  a  cash  estimate  looks  larger  to  them  than 
an  estimate  in  labor.  The  cost  of  fencing  seems  no  great 
burden ;  though,  estimated  in  cash,  it  would  seem,  as  in 
fact  it  is,  a  severe  charge. 

Drainage  can  be  performed  principally  by  the  same 
kind  of  labor  as  fencing,  the  cost  of  the  tiles  being  a  small 
!*L,m  in  the  whole  expense.  The  estimates  of  labor  will 
i»e  made  at  one  dollar  per  day,  in  investigating  this 
matter. 

This  would  be  the  fair  cash  value  of  work  by  the  day, 
perhaps ;  but  it  is  far  more  than  farmers,  who  have  work 
in  hand  on  their  own  farms,  which  may  be  executed  in 
the  leisure  season  after  haying,  and  even  into  the  Winter, 
when  convenient,  will  really  expend  for  such  labor.  Few 
farm  operations  would  pay  expenses,  if  every  hour  of 
superintendence,  and  every  hour  of  labor  by  man  and  boy 
and  beast,  were  set  down  at  this  high  rate. 

The  cost  of  the  "tiles  will,  ordinarily,  be  a  cash  item,  and 
the  labor  may  be  performed  like  that  of  planting,  hoeing, 
haying,  and  harvesting,  by  such  "help"  hired  by  the 
month  or  day,  or  rendered  by  the  family,  as  may  be  found 
convenient. 

The  cost  of  drainage  may  be  considered  conveniently, 
to  borrow  a  clerical  phrase,  "  under  the  following  heads." 


COST    OF   DKAINAwE.  213 

1.  Laying  out,  or  Engineering. — In  arranging  our 
Spring's  work,  we  devote  time  and  attention  to  laying  it 
out,  though  this  hardly  forms  an  item  in  the  expense  of 
the  crop.  Most  farmers  may  think  themselves  competent 
to  lay  out  their  drainage- works,  without  paying  for  the 
scientific  skill  of  an  engineer,  or  even  of  a  surveyor. 

It  is  believed,  however,  that  generally,  it  will  be  found 
true  economy,  to  procure  the  aid  of  an  experienced  en- 
gineer, if  convenient,  to  lay  out  the  work  at  the  outset. 
Certainly,  in  most  cases,  some  skill  in  the  use  of  levelling 
instruments,  at  least,  is  absolutely  essential  to  systematic 
work.  No  man,  however  experienced,  can,  by  the  eye, 
form  any  safe  opinion  of  the  fall  of  a  given  tract  of  land. 
Fields  which  appear  perfectly  level  to  the  eye,  will  be 
found  frequently  to  give  fall  enough  for  the  deepest  drain- 
age. The  writer  recently  had  occasion  to  note  this  fact 
on  his  own  land. 

A  low  wet  spot  had  many  times  been  looked  at,  as  a 
place  which  should  be  drained,  both  to  improve  its  soil, 
and  the  appearance  of  the  land  about  it ;  but  to  the  eye, 
it  seemed  doubtful  whether  it  was  not  about  as  low  as  the 
stream  some  forty  rods  off,  into  which  it  must  be  drained. 
Upon  testing  the  matter  carefully  with  levelling  instru- 
ments, it  was  found  that  from  the  lowest  spot  in  this  little 
swamp,  there  was  a  fall  of  seven  and  a  half  feet  to  the 
viver,  at  its  ordinary  height!  Again,  there  are  cases 
where  it  will  be  found  upon  accurate  surveys,  that  the 
fall  is  very  slight,  so  that  great  care  will  be  requisite,  to 
lay  the  drains  in  such  a  way  that  the  descent  may  be  con- 
tinuous and  uniform. 

Without  competent  skill  in  laying  out  the  work,  land- 
owners will  be  liable  not  only  to  errors  in  the  fall  of  the 
drains,  but  to  very  expensive  mistakes  in  the  location  of 
thorn.  A  very  few  rods  of  drains,  more  than  are  neces- 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 

sary,  would  cost  more  than  any  charge  of  a  competent 
person  for  laying  them  out  properly. 

Again,  experience  gives  great  facility  in  judging  of  the 
under-ground  flow  of  water,  of  the  permeability  of  soil,  of 
the  probability  of  finding  ledges  or  other  rock  formation, 
and  many  other  particulars  which  might  not  suggest  them- 
selves to  a  novice  in  the  business. 

The  laying  out  of  drains  is  important,  not  only  \vith 
reference  to  the  work  in  hand,  but  to  additional  work  to 
be  executed  in  future  on  adjoining  land,  so  that  the  whole 
may  be  eventually  brought  into  one  cheap  and  efficient 
system  with  the  smallest  effective  number  of  drains,  both 
minors  and  mains,  and  the  fewest  outlets  possible ;  with 
such  wells,  or  other  facilities  for  inspection,  as  may  be 
necessary. 

In  the  English  tables  of  the  cost  of  drainage  by  the 
Drainage  Companies,  an  estimate  of  $1.25  per  acre  is 
usually  put  down  for  "  superintendence,"  which  includes 
the  engineering  and  the  supervision  of  the  whole  process 
of  opening,  laying  and  filling,  securing  outfalls,  and  every 
other  process  till  the  work  is  completed.  The  general 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  drainage  is  about  $25.00  per  acre, 
and  this  item  of  $1.25  is  but  a  small  per  centage  on  that 
amount.  The  point  has  been  dwelt  upon  here,  more  for 
the  purpose  of  impressing  upon  land  owners,  the  import- 
ance of  employing  competent  skill  in  the  laying  out  of 
their  drainage  works,  than  because  the  expense  thus  in- 
curred, forms  any  considerable  item  of  the  cost  of  the 
whole  work. 

2.  Excavation  and  Filling.  The  principal  expense  of 
drainage  is  incurred  in  the  excavation  of  the  ditch,  whether 
it  be  for  tiles  or  for  stones.  The  labor  of  excavation  de- 
pends much  upon  the  nature  of  the  soil  to  be  moved. 

"  Draining  on  a  sound  clay."  says  the  writer  of  a  prize  essay,  ;:  free 


COST    OF   DRAINAGE.  215 

from  stones,  may  be  executed  at  a  cheaper  rate  per  rod;  in  length,  than 
on  almost  any  other  kind  of  soil,  as,  from  the  firmness  of  the  clay,  the 
work  may  be  done  with  narrow  spades,  and  but  a  small  quantity  of  soil 
requires  to  be  removed.  The  draining  of  wet  sands  or  grounds,  or  clays 
in  which  veins  of  sand  abound,  is  more  expensive  than  on  sound  clays, 
because  a  broader  spade  has  to  be  used,  and  consequently  a  larger 
amount  of  soil  removed ;  and  draining  stony  or  rocky  soils  is  still  more 
expensive,  because  the  pick  has  to  be  used.  This  adds  considerably  to 
the  expense." 

Great  stress  is  laid,  by  all  experienced  persons,  upon 
using  narrow  spades,  and  opening  ditches  as  narrow  as 
possible. 

It  is  somewhat  more  convenient  for  unskillful  laborers  to 
work  in  a  wide  ditch  than  in  a  narrow  one,  and  although 
the  laborers  frequently  protest  that  they  cannot  work  so 
rapidly  in  narrow  ditches,  yet  it  is  found  that,  in  contract 
work,  by  the  rod,  they  usually  open  the  ditches  very  nar- 
row. 

Indeed,  it  will  be  found  that,  generally,  the  cost  of  ex- 
cavation bears  a  pretty  constant  proportion  to  the  number 
of  cubic  feet  of  earth  thrown  out. 

It  will  surprise  those  unaccustomed  to  these  estimate?,  to 
observe  how  rapidly  the  quantity  excavated,  increases  with 
the  increased  width  of  the  ditch. 

To  enable  the  reader  accurately  to  compute  the  meas- 
urement of  drains  of  any  dimensions  likely  to  be  adopted, 
a  table  and  explanations,  found  in  the  Keport  of  the  Board 
of  Health,  already  quoted,  are  given  below.  The  dimen- 
sions, or  contents  of  any  drain,  are  found  by  multiplying 
together  the  length,  depth,  and  mean  width  of  the  drain. 

"  Thus,  if  a  drain  is  300  yards  long,  and  the  cutting  3  feet  deep,  20 
inches  wide  at  the  top,  and  4  inches  wide  at  the  bottom,  the  mean 
width  would  be  12  inches  (or  the  half  of  the  sum  of  20  and  4),  and  if 
we  multiply  300,  the  length,  by  1,  the  depth  in  yards,  and  by  i,  the 
mean  width  in  yards,  and  the  product  would  be  100  culic  yards.  The 
following  table  will  serve  to  facilitate  such  calculations 


216 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


Table  showing  the  number  of  Cubic  Yards  of  Earth  in  each  Rod  (5£  Yard* 
in  length),  in  Drains  or  Ditches  of  various  Dimensions, 


DEPTH. 

MEAN  WIDTH. 

Inches. 

7  In. 

8  In. 

9  In. 

10  In. 

11  In. 

12  In. 

13  In. 

14  In. 

15  In. 

16  In. 

17  In.  18  In. 

80. 

0-89 

1-02 

1-146 

1-27 

1-40 

1-53 

1-655 

1-78 

1-91 

2-04 

2-164 

2-29 

33. 

0-98 

1-12 

1-26 

1-40 

1-54 

1-68 

1-82 

1-96 

2-10 

2-24 

2-38  12-52 

86. 

1-07 

1-22 

1-375 

1-53 

1-68 

1-83 

1-986 

2-14 

2-29 

2-244 

2-60 

2-75 

39. 

1-16 

1-324 

1-49 

1-655 

1-82 

1-986 

2-15 

2-32 

2-48 

2-65 

2-81 

2-98 

42. 

1.26 

1-426 

1-604 

1-78 

1-96 

2-14 

2-32 

2-495 

2-674 

2-85 

3-03 

3-21 

45. 

1-34 

1-53 

1-72 

1-91 

2-10 

2-29 

2-48 

2-67 

2-865 

3-055 

3-246 

3-438 

18. 

1-426 

1-63 

1-833 

2-04 

2-24 

2-444 

2-65 

2-85 

3-056 

3-26 

3-46 

3-667 

51. 

1-515 

1-73 

1-95 

2-164 

2-38 

2-60 

2-81 

3-03 

3-25 

3-46 

3-68 

3-896 

54. 

1-604 

1-83 

2-06 

2-29 

2-52 

2-75 

2-98 

3-20 

3-44 

3-666 

3-895 

4-125 

57. 

1-69 

1-935 

2-18 

2-42 

2-66 

2-90 

3-14 

3-38 

3-63 

3-87 

4-n 

4-354 

60. 

1-78 

2-0362-29 

2-546 

2-80 

3-056 

3-31 

3-564 

3-82 

4-074 

4-33 

4-584 

'•  Along  the  top  of  the  table  is  placed  the  mean  widths  in  inches,  an<J 
on  the  left-hand  side  the  depths  of  the  drains,  extending  from  30  inehea 
to  5  feet.  The  numbers  in  the  body  of  the  table  express  cubic  yards, 
and  decimals  of  a  yard.  In  making  uac  of  the  table,  it  is  necessary 
first  to  find  the  mean  width  of  the  drain,  from  the  widths  at  the  top  and 
bottom.  Thus,  if  a  drain  3  feet  deep  were  16  inches  wide  at  the  top, 
and  4  inches  at  the  bottom,  the  mean  width  would  be  half  of  1 6  added 
to  4,  or  10;  then,  by  looking  in  the  table  for  the  column  under  10 
(width),  and  opposite  36  (inches  of  depth),  we  find  the  number  of  cubic 
yards  in  each  rod  of  such  a  drain  to  be  1.53,  or  somewhat  more  than  one 
and  a  half.  If  we  compare  this  with  another  drain  20  inches  wide  at 
the  top,  4  inches  at  the  bottom,  and  4£  feet  deep,  we  have  the  mean 
width  12,  and  looking  at  the  table  under  12  and  opposite  54,  we  find 
2.75  cubic  yards,  or  two  and  three-quarters  to  the  rod.  In  this  case, 
the  quantity  of  earth  to  be  removed  is  nearly  twice  as  much  as  in  the 
other,  and  hence,  as  far  as  regards  the  digging,  the  cost  of  the  labor  will 
be  nearly  double.  But  in  the  case  of  deep  drains,  the  cost  increases 
slightly  for  another  reason,  namely,  the  increased  labor  of  lifting  the 
earth  to  the  surface  from  a  greater  depth." 

Under  the  title  of  the  "  Depth  of  Drains,"  other  reasons 
are  suggested  why  shallow  drains  are  more  easily  wrought 
than  deeper  drains.  The  widths  given  in  English  treat- 
ises, and  found  perfectly  practicable  there,  with  proper 
drainage-tools,  will  seem  to  us  exceedingly  narrow.  Mr. 
Parkes  gives  the  width  of  the  top  of  a  four-foot  drain  18 


COST  OF  DRAINAGE.  217 

inches,  of  a  three-and-a-half  foot  drain  16  inches,  and  of  a 
three-foot  drain  12  inches.  He  gives  the  width  of  drains 
for  tiles,  three  inches  at  bottom,  and  those  for  stones,  eight 
inches.  Of  the  cost  of  excavating  a  given  number  of  cubic 
yards  of  earth  from  drains,  it  is  difficult  to  give  reliable 
estimates.  In  the  writer's  own  field,  where  a  pick  was  used 
to  loosen  the  lower  two  feet  of  earth,  the  labor  of  opening 
and  filling  drains  4  feet  deep,  and  of  the  mean  width  of  14 
inches,  all  by  hand  labor,  has  been,  in  a  mile  of  drains, 
being  our  first  experiments,  about  one  day's  labor  to  three 
rods  in  length.  The  excavated  earth  of  such  a  drain, 
measures  not  quite  three  cubic  yards.  (Exactly,  2.85.) 

In  work  subsequently  executed,  we  have  opened  our 
drains  of  4  foot  depth,  but  20  inches  at  top,  and  4  inches 
at  bottom,  giving  a  mean  width  of  12  inches.  In  one 
instance,  in  the  Summer  of  1858,  two  men  opened  14  rods 
of  such  drain  in  one  day.  In  six  days,  the  same  two  men 
opened,  laid,  and  filled  947  feet,  or  about  57J  rods  of  such 
drain.  Their  labor  was  worth  $12.00,  or  21  cents  per  rod. 
The  actual  cost  of  this  job  was  as  follows : 

847  two-inch  tiles,  at  $13  per  1,000 $11.01 

100  three-inch         "  "  for  main 2.50 

70  bushels  of  tan,  to  protect  the  joints 70  ' 

Horse  to  haul  tiles  and  tan 50 

Labor,  12  days,  at  $1 12.00 

Total .$26.71 

This  is  46£  cents  per  rod,  besides  our  own  time  and  skill 
in  laying  out  and  superintending  the  work.  The  work 
was  principally  done  with  Irish  spades,  and  was  in  a  sandy 
soil.  In  the  same  season,  the  same  men  opened,  laid,  and 
filled  70  rods  of  four-foot  drain,  of  the  same  mean  width 
of  12  inches,  in  the  worst  kind  of  clay  soil,  where  the 
pick  was  constantly  used.  It  cost  35  days'  labor  to  com- 
plete the  job,  being  50  cents  per  rod  for  the  labor  alone. 
The  least  cost  of  the  labor  of  draining  4  feet  deep,  on  our 
10 


218  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

own  land,,  is  thus  shown  to  be  21  cents  per  rod,  and  the 
greatest  cost  50  cents  per  rod,  all  the  labor  being  by  hand. 
One-half  these  amounts  would  have  completed  the  drains 
at  3  feet  depth,  as  has  been  already  shown. 

But  the  excavation  here  is  much  greater  than  is  usual  in 
England,  Mr.  Parkes  giving  the  mean  width  of  a  four-foot 
drain  but  10 J  inches,  instead  of  14  or  12,  as  just  given. 
Mr.  Denton  gives  estimates  of  the  cost,  in  England,  of  cut- 
ting and  filling  four-foot  drains,  which  vary  from  12  cents 
per  rod  upwards,  according  to  the  prices  of  labor,  and 
other  circumstances. 

In  New  England,  where  labor  may  be  fairly  rated  at 
one  dollar  per  day,  the  cost  of  excavating  and  filling  four- 
foot  drains  by  hand  labor,  must  vary  from  20  to  50  cents 
per  rod,  according  to  the  soil,  and  half  those  amounts  for 
drains  of  three-foot  depth. 

Of  the  aid  which  may  be  derived  from  the  use  of  drain- 
ing plows,  or  of  the  common  plow,  or  subsoil  plow,  our 
views  may  be  found  expressed  under  the  appropriate 
heads.  That  drains  will  long  continue  to  be  opened  in 
this  fast  country  by  hand  labor,  is  not  to  be  supposed,  but 
we  give  our  estimates  of  the  expenses,  at  this  first  stage 
of  our  education  in  drainage. 

3.  Cost  of  the  Tiles.  Under  the  title  of  "  The  Cost  of 
Tiles,"  we  have  given  such  information  as  can  be  at  pre- 
sent procured,  touching  that  matter.  It  will  be  assumed, 
in  these  estimates,  that  no  tiles  of  less  than  l-i  inch  bore 
will  be  used  for  any  purpose,  and  for  mains,  usually  those 
of  three-inch  bore  are  sufficient.  The  proportion  of  length 
of  mains  to  that  of  minors  is  small,  and,  considering  the 
probable  reduction  of  prices,  we  will,  for  the  present, 
assume  $10  per  1,000  as  the  prices  of  such  mixed  sizes  as 
may  be  used. 

Add  to  this,  the  freight  of  them  to  a  reasonable  dis- 
tance, and  we  have  the  cost  of  the  tiles  on  the  field.  The 


COST   OF    DRAINAGE.  219 

weight  of  two-inch  tiles  is  usually  rated  at  about  3  Ibs. 
each,  though  they  fall  short  of  this  weight  until  wet. 

4.  Outlets.  A  small  per-centage  should  be  added  to  the 
items  already  noticed,  for  the  cost  of  the  general  outfall, 
which  should  be  secured  with  great  care;  although,  from 
such  examination  as  the  writer  has  made  in  this  country, 
arid  in  England  also,  in  the  large  majority  of  cases,  drains 
are  discharged  with  very  little  precaution  to  protect  the 
outlets.     Works  completed  under  the  charge  of  regular 
engineers,  form  an  exception  to  this  remark;  and  an  item 
of   37   cents  per  acre,  for  iron  outlets  and  masonry,  is 
usually  included  in  the  estimated  cost  per  acre  of  drainage. 

5.  Collars.  It  is  not  known  to  the  author  that  collars 
have  been  at  all  used  in   America,  except  at  the   New 
York  Central  Park,  in  1858  ;  round   pipes,  upon   which 
they  are  commonly  used  abroad,  when  used  on  any,  not 
being  yet  much  in  use  here. 

In  the  estimates  of  Mr.  Denton,  in  his  tables,  collars  are 
set  down  at  about  half  the  cost  of  the  mixed  tiles.  The 
bore  of  them  being  large  enough  to  receive  the  end  of 
the  tile,  increases  the  price  in  proportion  to  the  increase 
in  size.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  a  smaller  size  of  tiles 
may  prudently  be  used  with  collars  than  without,  because 
the  collars  keep  the  tiles  perfectly  in  line,  and  freely  admit 
water,  while  they  exclude  roots,  sand,  and  other  obstruc- 
tions. A  drain  laid  with  one  and  a  half  inch  tiles  with 
collars  is,  no  doubt,  better  in  any  soil  than  two-inch  tiles 
without  collars.  Some  compensation  for  the* cost  of  collars 
may  thus  be  found  in  the  less  price  of  the  smaller  tiles. 

6.  Laying.  The  cost  of  laying   tiles  is   so   trifling  as 
hardly  to  be  worth  estimating,  except  to  show  its  insig- 
nificance.    The   estimate,   by  English   engineers,  is    two 
cents  per  rod  for  "  pipe  laying  and  finishing."     What  is 
included  in  "  finishing,"  does  not  appear.     From  the  per- 
sonal olservations  of  the  writer,  it  is  believed  that  an 


220 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


active  man  may  lay  from  60  to  100  rods  of  tiles  per  day, 
in  ditches  well  prepared.  Indeed,  we  have  seen  our  man 
James,  lay  twelve  rods  of  two-inch  tiles,  in  a  four-foot 
ditch,  in  forty-five  minutes,  when  ne  was  not  aware  that 
he  was  working  against  time.  This  is  at  the  rate  of  six- 
teen rods  an  hour,  which  would  give  just  160  rods,  or  a 
half-mile,  in  a  day  of  ten  hours. 

7.  Number  of  Tiles  to  the  Acre.  The  number  of  tiles 
used  depends,  of  course,  upon  the  distances  apart  of  the 
drains,  and  upon  the  length  of  the  tiles  used. 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  tiles  of  various 
length,  per  acre,  required  at  different  intervals: 


Intervals  between  the 
Drains,  in  feet 

Twelve  inch 
Pipe. 

Thirteen  inch 
Pipe. 

Fourteen  inch 
Pipe. 

Fifteen  inch 
Pipe. 

15 

2904 

2680 

2489 

2323 

18 

2420 

2234 

2074 

1936 

21 

2074 

1915 

1778 

1659 

24  

1815 

1676 

1555 

1452 

27  

1613 

1489 

1383 

1290 

30  

1452 

1340 

1244 

1161 

33  

1320 

1219 

1131 

1056 

36 

1210 

1117 

1037 

968 

39 

1117 

1031 

957 

893 

42 

1037 

958 

888 

829 

The  following  table  gives  the  number  of  rods  per  acre 
of  drains  at  different  distances  : 


Intervals  between  the  Drains,  In  feet. 

Kods  per  acre, 

15 

176 

18                       ...                                 

146f 

21 

1254 

24  

110 

27  .                .            .      .. 

97£ 

30 

88 

33  ... 

80 

36  

734 

39  

67  A 

42  

624 

COST   OF   DRAINAGE.  221 

It  may  be  remarked  here,  that  tiles,  moulded  of  the 
same  length,  vary  nearly  two  inches  when  burned,  accord- 
ing to  the  severity  of  the  heat.  It  may  be  suggested,  too, 
that  the  length  of  the  tile,  in  the  use  of  any  machine,  is 
entirely  at  the  option  of  the  maker.  It  is  not,  perhaps, 
an  insult  to  our  common  humanity,  to  suggest  to  buyers 
the  propriety  of  measuring  the  length  as  well  as  calibre 
of  tiles  before  purchasing.  In  the  estimates  which  will 
be  made  in  this  detail,  it  will  be  assumed  that  tiles  will  lay 
one  foot  each,  with  allowance  for  imperfections  and  break- 
age. This  is  as  near  as  possible  to  accuracy,  according  to 
our  best  observation  ;  and,  besides,  there  is  convenience 
in  this  simple  estimate  of  one  tile  to  one  foot,  which  is 
important  in  practice. 

We  have  now  the  data  from  which  we  may  make  some 
tolerably  safe  estimates  of  the  cost  of  drainage.  With 
labor  at  one  dollar  per  day,  and  tiles  at  $10  per  1,000,  or 
one  cent  each,  or  one  cent  a  foot,  and  ditches  four  feet 
deep,  opened  and  filled  at  one-third  of  a  day's  labor  to  the 
rod,  we  may  set;  down  the  principal  items  of  the  cost  of 
drainage  by  the  rod,  as  follows  : 

Cutting  and  filling  per  rod      ....     331  cts. 
Tiles    ............     16|   « 


This  is  putting  the  tiles  at  one  cent  a  foot,  and  the  labor 
at  two  cents  a  foot,  or  just  twice  as  much  as  the  cost  of 
tiles,  and  it  brings  a  total  of  half  a  dollar  a  rod,  all  of 
them  numbers  easily  remembered,  and  convenient  for 
calculation. 

By  reference  to  the  table  giving  the  number  of  rods  to 
the  acre,  the  cost  of  labor  and  tiles  per  acre  may  be  at 
once  found,  by  taking  half  the  number  of  rods  in  dollars. 
At  42  feet  distan  ce,  the  cost  will  be  $31.42  per  acre  ;  at 


222  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

30  feet  distance,  $44 ;  and  at  60  feet,  hall  that  amount, 
or  $22  per  acre. 

Our  views  as  to  the  frequency  of  drains,  may  be  found 
under  the  appropriate,  head. 

Our  estimate  thus  far,  is  of  four-foot  drains.  We  have 
shown,  under  the  head  of  the  "  Depth  of  Drains,"  that 
the  cost  of  cutting  and  filling  a  four-foot  drain  is  double 
that  of  cutting  and  filling  a  three-foot  drain.  There  is  no 
doubt,  that,  after  all  the  good  advice  we  have  given  on 
this  subject,  many,  who  "  grow  wiser  than  their  teachers 
are,"  will  set  aside  the  teachings  of  the  best  draining 
engineers  in  the  world,  and  insist  that  three  feet  deep  is 
enough,  and  persist  in  so  laying  their  tiles. 

This  shallowness  will  reduce  the  cost  of  labor  about  one 
half,  so  that  we  shall  have  the  cost  of  labor  and  tiles 
equal — one  cent  a  foot,  making  33J  cents  per  rod,  or  one- 
third  of  a  dollar,  instead  of  one-half  a  dollar  per  rod.  To 
the  cost  of  labor  and  tiles,  we  should  add  a  fair  estimate 
of  the  cost  of  the  other  items  of  engineering  and  outlets. 
These  are  trifling  matters,  which  English  tables,  as  has  been 
shown,  estimate  together,  at  about  $1.67  per  acre. 

Briefly  to  recapitulate  the  elements  of  computation  of 
the  cost  of  drainage,  we  find  them  to  be  these :  the  price 
of  labor,  the  price  of  tiles,  and  freight  of  them ;  the  char- 
acter of  the  soil,  the  depth  of  the  drains,  and  their  dist- 
ance apart,  with  the  incidental  expense  of  engineering 
and  of  outfalls,  and  the  large  additional  cost  of  collars, 
where  they  are  deemed  necessary. 

COMPARATIVE   COST   OF   TILE   AND    STONE   DRAINS. 

It  is  not  possible  to  answer,  with  precision,  the  question 
so  often  asked,  as  to  the  comparative  cost  of  drainage 
with  tiles  and  stones. 

•  The  estimates  given  of  the  cost  of  tile  drains,  are  based 
upon  the  writer's  own  experience,  upon    his  own  farm 


COST   OF   DRAINAGE. 

mainly ;  and  the  mean  width  of  four-foot  tile  drains,  may 
be  assumed  to  be  14  inches,  instead  of  10J  inches,  as 
actually  practiced  in  England. 

For  a  stone  drain  of  almost  any  form,  certainly  for  any 
regular  water-course  laid  with  stones,  our  ditch  must  be 
at  least  21  inches  wide  from  top  to  bottom.  This  is  just 
50  per  cent,  more  than  our  own  estimate,  and  100  per 
cent.,  or  double  the  English  estimate  for  tile  drains. 

It  will  require  at  least  two  ox-cart  loads  of  stones  to 
the  rod,  to  construct  any  sort  of  a  stone  drain,  costing, 
perhaps,  25  cents  a  load  for  picking  up  and  hauling.  In 
most  cases,  where  the  stones  are1  not  on  the  farm,  it  will 
cost  twice  that  sum.  "We  will  say  25  cents  per  rod  for 
laying  the  stones,  though  this  is  a  low  estimate.  We  have, 
then,  for  cutting  and  filling  the  ditch,  50  cents  per  rod,  50 
cents  for  hauling  stone,  and  for  laying,  25  cents  per  rod, 
making  $1.25  a  rod  for  a  stone  drain,  against  50  cents  per 
rod  for  tile  drains. 

Then  we  have  a  large  surplus  of  earth,  two  cart-loads 
to  the  rod,  displaced  by  the  two  loads  of  stone,  to  be  dis- 
posed of;  and  in  case  of  the  tiles,  we  have  just  earth 
enough.  There  are  many  other  considerations  in  favor  of 
tiles:  such  as  the  cutting  up  of  the  ground  by  teaming 
heavy  loads  of  stones ;  the  greater  permanancy  of  tiles ; 
and  the  fact  that  they  furnish  no  harbor  for  mice  and 
other  vermin,  as  the  English  call  such  small  beasts.  In 
favor  of  stones, is  the  fact,  that  often  they  are  on  the  land, 
and  must  be  moved,  and  it  is  convenient  to  dispose  of 
them  in  the  ditches. 

Again,  there  are  many  parts  of  the  country  where  tiles 
are  not  to  be  procured,  without  great  cost  of  freight,  and 
where  labor  is  abundant  at  certain  seasons,  and  money 
scarce  at  all  seasons,  so  that  the  question  is  really  between 
stone  drains  and  no  drains. 

Stone  drains,  if  laid  very  deep,  are  far  more  secure  than 


224:  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

when  shallow;  because,  if  shallow,  they  are  usually  ruined 
by  the  breaking  in  of  water  at  the  top,  in  the  Spring  time, 
by  the  action  of  frost,  and  by  the  mining  of  mice  and 
moles.  If  laid  four  feet  deep,  and  the  earth  rammed 
hard  above  the  stones,  and  rounded  on  the  surface  to  throw 
off  surface  water,  they  may  be  found  efficient  and  per- 
manent. 

The  conclusion,  however,  is,  that  where  it  can  be  pro- 
cured, at  any  reasonable  cost,  drainage  with  tiles  will  gener- 
ally cost  less  than  one-half  the  expense  of  drainage  with 
stones,  and  be  incomparably  more  satisfactory  in  the  end. 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS.  225 


CHAPTER  XL 

DRAINING   IMPLEMENTS. 

Unreasonable  Expectations  about  Draining  Tools. — Levelling  Instruments  ; 
Guessing  not  Accurate. — Level  by  a  Square. — Spirit  Level. — Span,  or  A 
Level. — Grading  by  Lines. — Boning-rod. — Challoner's  Drain  Level. — Spades 
and  Shovels. — Long-handled  Shovel. — Irish  Spade,  Description  and  Cut. — 
Bottoming  Tools. —  Narrow  Spades. — English  Bottoming  Tools. — Pipe- 
layer. — Pipe-laying  Illustrated. — Pickaxes. — Drain  Gauge. — Drain  Plows, 
and  Ditch-Diggers.  —  Fowler's  Drain  Plow.  —  Pratt's  Ditch-Digger.  — 
McEwan's  Drain  Plow. — Routt's  Drain  Plow. 

IT  seems  to  be  a  characteristic  of  Americans,  to  be  dis- 
satisfied with  every  recent  improvement  in  art  or  science, 
and  the  greater  the  step  in  advance  of  former  times,  the 
more  captious  and  critical  do  we  become.  There  is  many 
a  good  lady,  who  cannot  tolerate  a  sewing-machine, 
although  she  knows  it  will  do  the  work  of  ten  seam- 
stresses, because  it  will  not  sew  on  buttons  and  work  button- 
holes !  Most  of  us  are  very  much  out  of  temper  with 
the  magnetic  telegraph,  just  now,  because  it  does  not 
bring  us  the  Court  news  from  England  every  morning  be- 
fore breakfast,  though  we  have  hourly  dispatches  from 
Washington,  New  Orleans,  and  St.  Louis  ;  and,  returning 
to  our  moutons,  everybody  is  finding  fault  with  us  just 
now,  because  we  cannot  tell  them  of  some  universal,  all- 
penetrating,  cheap,  strong,  simple,  enduring  little  imple- 
ment, by  means  of  which  any  kind  of  a  laborer,  Scotch, 
Irish,  or  Yankee,  may  conveniently  open  all  kinds  of 
drains  in  all  kinds  of  land,  whether  sand,  hard-pan, 
gravel,  or  clay. 
10* 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 

Having  personally  inquired  and  examined,  touching 
draining  tools  in  England,  and  having  been  solicited  by 
an  extensive  agricultural  implement  house  in  Boston,  to 
furnish  them  a  list  and  description  of  a  complete  set  of 
draining  tools,  and  feeling  the  obligation  which  seemed  to 
be  imposed  on  us,  to  know  all  about  this  matter,  we  wrote 
to  Mr.  Denton,  one  of  the  first  draining  engineers  in  the 
world,  to  send  us  a  list,  with  drawings  and  descriptions  of 
such  implements  as  he  finds  most  useful,  or,  if  more  con- 
venient the  implements  themselves. 

Mr.  Denton  kindly  replied  to  our  inquiry,  and  his  an- 
swer may  be  taken  as  the  best  evidence  upon  this  point. 
He  says : 

"  As  to  tools,  it  is  the  same  with  them  as  it  is  with  the  art  of  drain- 
ing itself — too  much  rule  and  too  much  drawing  upon  paper  ;  all  very 
right  to  begin  with,  but  very  prejudicial  to  progress.  I  employ,  as  en- 
gineer to  the  General  Land  Drainage  Company,  and  on  my  private 
account,  during  the  drainage  season,  as  many  as  2,000  men,  and  it  is 
an  actual  fact,  that  not  one  of  them  uses  the  set  of  tools  figured  in 
print.  I  have  frequently  purchased  a  number  of  sets  of  the  Birming- 
ham tools,  and  sent  them  down  on  extensive  works.  The  laborers 
would  purchase  a  few  of  the  smaller  tools,  such  as  Nos.  290,  291,  and 
301,  figured  in  Morton's  excellent  Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,  and 
would  try  them,  and  then  order  others  of  the  country  blacksmith,  dif- 
fering in  several  respects;  less  weighty  and  much  less  costly,  and,  more- 
over, much  better  as  working  tools.  All  I  require  of  the  cutters,  is, 
that  the  bottom  of  the  drain  should  be  evenly  cut,  to  fit  the  size  of  the 
pipe.  The  rest  of  the  work  takes  care  of  itself;  for  a  good  workman 
will  economize  his  labor  for  his  own  sake,  by  moving  as  little  earth  as 
practicable;  thus,  for  instance,  a  first-class  cutter,  in  clays,  will  get 
down  four  feet  with  a  twelve-inch  opening,  ordinarily ;  if  he  wishes  to 
show  off,  he  will  sacrifice  his  own  comfort  to  appearance,  and  wil]  do  it 
with  a  ten-inch  opening." 

Having  thus  "  freed  our  mind  "  by  way  of  preliminary, 
we  propose  to  take  up  our  subject,  and  pursue  it  as  prac- 
tically and  quietly  as  possible  to  the  end.  It  may  be 
wo  \  perhaps,  first  to  suggest  by  way  of  explanation  of 


DRAINING   IMPLEMENTS.  227 

Mr.  Denton's  letter,  above  quoted,  that  drains  are  usually 
opened  in  England  by  the  yard,  or  rod,  the  laborer  finding 
his  own  tools. 

As  has  been  intimated,  the  implements  convenient  for 
draining,  depend  on  many  circumstances.  They  depend 
upon  the  character  of  the  earth  to  be  moved.  A  sharp, 
light  spade,  which  may  work  rapidly  and  well  in  a  light 
loam  or  sand,  may  be  entirely  unfit  to  drive  into  a  stiff 
clay  ;  and  the  fancy  bottoming  tools  which  may  cut  out  a 
soft  clay  or  sand  in  nicely-measured  slices,  will  be  found 
quite  too  delicate  for  a  hard-pan  or  gravel,  where  the  pick- 
axe alone  can  open  a  passage. 

The  implements  again  must  be  suited  to  the  workman 
who  handles  it.  Henry  Ward  Beecher,  in  speaking  of 
creeds,  which  he,  on  another  occasion,  had  said  were  "  the 
skins  of  religion  set  up  arid  stuffed,"  remarked,  that  it  was 
of  more  importance  that  a  man  should  know  how  to  make 
a  practical  use  of  his  faith,  than  that  he  should  subscribe 
to  many  articles ;  for,  said  he,  "  I  have  seen  many  a  man 
who  could  do  more  at  carpenter's  work  with  one  old  jack- 
knife,  than  another  could  do  with  a  whole  chest  of  tools !" 

What  can  an  Irishman  do  with  a  chopping  ax,  and  what 
cannot  a  Yankee  do  with  it?  Who  ever  saw  a  Scotchman 
or  an  Irishman  who  could  not  cut  a  straight  ditch  with  a 
spade,  and  who  ever  saw  a  Yankee  who  could  or  would 
cut  a  ditch  straight  with  any  tool  ?  One  man  works  best 
with  a  long-handled  spade,  another  prefers  a  short  handle ; 
one  drives  it  into  the  earth  with  his  right  foot,  another 
with  his  left.  A  laboring  man,  in  general,  works  most 
easily  with  such  tools  as  he  is  accustomed  to  handle  ;  while 
theorizing  implement-makers,  working  out  their  pattern  by 
the  light  of  reason,  may  produce  such  a  tool  as  a  man 
ought  to  work  with,  without  adapting  it  at  all  to  the  capa- 
city or  taste  of  the  laborer.  A  man  should  be  measured 
for  his  tools,  as  much  as  for  his  garment,  and  not  be 


228  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

expected  to  fit  himself  to  another's  notions  more  than  to 
another's  coat. 

If  the  land-owner  proposes  to  act  as  his  own  engineer, 
the  first  instrument  he  will  want  to  use  is  a  SPIRIT 
LEVEL,  or  some  other  contrivance  by  which  he  may 
ascertain  the  variations  of  the  surface  of  his  field.  The 
natural  way  for  a  Yankee  to  get  at  the  grades  is  to 
guess  at  them,  and  this,  practically,  is  what  is  usually 
done.  Ditches  are  opened  where  there  appears  to  be  a 
descent,  and  if  there  is  water  running,  the  rise  is  estima-ted 
by  its  current ;  and  if  there  is  no  water  rising  in  the  drain, 
a  bucketfull  is  occasionally  poured  in  to  guide  the  laborer 
in  his  work.  ~No  one  who  has  not  tested  the  accuracy,  or, 
rather,  inaccuracy,  of  his  judgment,  as  to  the  levels  of 
fields,  can  at  all  appreciate  the  deceitfulness  of  appear- 
ances on  this  point.  The  human  eye  will  see  straight ; 
but  it  will  not  see  level  without  a  guide.  It  forms  con- 
clusions by  comparison  ;  and  the  lines  of  upland,  of  forest 
tops  and  of  distant  hills,  all  conspire  to  confuse  the  judg- 
ment, so  that  it  is  quite  common  for  a  brook  to  appear  to 
the  eye  to  run  up  hill,  even  when  it  has  a  quick  cur- 
rent. A  few  trials  with  a  spirit-level  will  cure  any  man 
of  his  conceit  on  this  subject. 

And  so  it  is  as  to  the  regular  inclination  of  the  bottom 
of  drains.  It  is  desirable  not  only  to  have  an  inclination 
all  the  way,  but  a  regular  inclination,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
especially  if  the  descent  be  small.  Workmen  are  very  apt 
to  work  at  a  uniform  depth  from  the  surface,  and  so  give 
the  bottom  of  the  drain  the  same  variations  as  the  surface 
line ;  and  thus  at  one  point  there  may  be  a  fall  of  one  inch 
in  a  rod  ;  at  another,  twice  that  fall ;  and  at  another,  a  dead 
level,  or  even  a  hollow.  On  Dur  own  farm,  we  have  found, 
in  twelve  rods,  a  variation  of  a  foot  in  the  bottom  line  of  a 
drain  opened  by  skillful  workmen  on  a  nearly  level  field, 
where  they  had  no  water  to  guide  them,  and  where  they 
had  supposed  their  fall  was  regular  throughout. 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS. 


The  following  sketch  shows  the  difference  between  lines 
of  tiles  laid  with  and  without  instruments.    Next  to  guessing 


Jfig.  54 

at  the  fall  in  our  field,  may  be  placed  a  little  contrivance, 
of  which  we  have  made  use  sufficiently  to  become  satis- 
fied of  its  want  of  practical  accuracy.  It  is  thus  figured 

and  described  in  the  excellent 
treatise  of  Thomas,  on  Farm 
Implements. 

"  A  is  a  common  square,  placed 
in  a  slit  in  the  top  of  the  stake  B. 
By  means  of  a  plumb-line  the  square 
is  brought  to  a  level,  when  a  thumb- 
screw, at  C,  fixes  it  fast  If  the 
square  is  two  feet  long,  and  is  so 
carefully  adjusted  as  not  to  vary  more 
than  the  twentieth  of  an  inch  from 
a  true  level,  which  is  easily  accom- 
plished, then  a  twentieth  of  an  inch 
in  two  feet  will  be  one  inch  in  forty 
feet — a  sufficient  degree  of  accuracy 
Fig.  55.— SQUARE  AND  PLTTMB-LETEL.  for  many  cases." 

We  do  not  so  much  object  to  the  principle  of  the  above 
level,  as  to  its  practical  working.  We  find  it  difficult, 
without  cross  sights,  to  take  an  accurate  level  with  any 
instrument.  However,  those  who  are  used  to  rifle-shoot- 
ing may  hit  tolerably  near  the  mark  with  the  square. 
Mr.  Thomas  only  claims  that  it  is  accurate  enough  "  for 
many  cases." 

A  proper  spirit-level,  such  as  is  used  by  engineers  of 
railroads  and  canals,  attached  to  a  telescope,  is  the  best 
of  all  instruments.  "  So  great  is  the  perfection  of  this 


230 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


instrument,"  says  the  writer  just  quoted,  "  that  separate 
lines  of  levels  have  been  run  with  it,  for  sixty  miles,  with- 
out varying  two-thirds  of  an  inch  for  the  whole  distance." 
A  cheap  and  convenient  spirit-level,  for  our  purpose,  is 
thus  constructed. 

It  is  furnished  with  eye  sights,  a  6,  and? 
when  in  use,  is  placed  into  a  framing  of 
brass  which  operates  as  a  spring  to  adjust 
it  to  the  level  position,  c?,  by  the  action  of 
the  large-headed  brass  screw,  c.  A  stud 
is  affixed  to  the  framing,  and  pushed  firmly 
into  a  gimlet-hole  in  the  top  of  the  short 
rod,  which  is  pushed  or  driven  into  the 
ground  at  the  spot  from  whence  the  level 
is  desired  to  be  ascertained.  It  need 
scarcely  be  mentioned,  that  the  height  of 
the  eye  sight,  from  the  guard,  is  to  be 
deducted  from  the  height  of  observation, 
which  quantity  is  easily  obtained  by  hav- 
ing the  rod  marked  off  in  inches  and  feet ; 
but  it  may  be  mentioned,  that  thk>  instru- 
ment should  be  used  in  all  cases  of  draining 
on  level  ground,  even  when  one  is  con- 
fident that  he  knows  the  fall  of  the  ground  ; 
for  the  eye  is  a  very  deceitful  monitor  for 
informing  you  of  the  levelness  of  ground. 
It  is  so  light  as  to  admit  of  being  carried 
in  the  pocket,  whilst  its  rod  may  be  used 
as  a  staff  or  cane. 

A  staff  of  ten  feet  in  length,  graduated  in  feet  and 
inches,  and  held  by  an  attendant  at  the  various  points  of 
observation,  is  necessary  in  the  use  of  the  spirit-level  in 
the  field.  A  painted  target,  arranged  with  a  slide  to  be 
Amoved  up  and  down  on  this  staff,  and  held  by  a  thumb- 
screw, will  be  found  useful. 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS. 


231 


We  have  made  for  our  own  use  a  level  FIg*  5T< 
like  the  above,  and  find  it  sufficiently 
accurate  for  drainage  purposes.  Small 
spirit-levels  set  in  iron  can  be  had  at  the 
hardware  shops  for  twenty  cents  each,  and 
can  be  readily  attached  to  wood  by  a 
screw,  in  constructing  our  implement ;  or 
a  spirit-level  set  in  mahogany,  of  suitable 
size,  may  be  procured  for  a  half  dollar, 
and  any  person,  handy  with  tools,  can  do 
the  rest.  The  sights  should  be  arranged 
both  ways,  with  a  slit  cut  with  a  chisel 
through  the  brass  or  tin,  arid  an  oblong 
opening  at  each  end.  The  eye  is  placed 
at  the  slit,  and  sight  is  taken  by  a  hair 
or  fine  thread,  drawn  across  the  opening 
at  the  other  end.  Then,  by  changing  ends, 
and  sighting  through  the  other  end  at  a  STAFF  AND  TA,,  ,. 
given  object,  any  error  in  the  instrument  may  be  deter:  <>.d. 
The  hair  or  thread  may  be  held  in  place  by  a  little 
wax,  and  moved  up  or  down  till  it  is  carefully  adjrsted. 
The  instrument  should  turn  upon  the  staff  in  all  directions, 
so  that  the  level  of  a  whole  field,  •  so  far  as  it  is  within 
range,  may  be  taken  from  one  position. 

To  maintain  a  uniform  grade  in  the  bottom  of  a  drain 
so  as  to  economize  the  fall,  and  distribute  it  equally 
through  the  whole  length,  several  different  instruments 
and  means  may  be  adopted.  The  first  which  we  will 
figure,  is  what  is  called  the  Span,  or  A  Level.  Such  a 
le^el  may  be  easily  constructed  of  common  inch-board. 
If  it  be  desired  to  note  the  fall  in  feet,  the  span  may  con- 
veniently be  ten  feet.  If  a  notation  in  rods  be  preferred, 
the  span  should  be  a  rod,  or  half  rod  long. 

The  two  feet  being  placed  on  a  floor,  and  ascertained 


FARM    DKAINAGE. 


to  be  perfectly  level  by  a  spirit-level,  the  plumb-line  will 
hang  in  the  centra,  where  a  distinct  mark  should  be  made 


Fig.  58.— SPAN,  OR  A  LEVEL. 

on  the  cross-bar.  Then  place  a  block  of  wood,  exactly  an 
inch  thick,  under  one  leg,  and  mark  the  place  where  the 
line  crosses  the  bar.  Put  another  block  an  inch  thick 
under  the  same  leg,  and  again  mark  where  the  line  crosses 
the  bar,  and  so  on  as  far  as  is  thought  necessary.  Then 
put  the  blocks  under  the  other  leg  in  the  same  manner, 
and  mark  the  cross-bar.  If  the  span  be  ten  feet,  the 
plumb-line  will  indicate  upon  the  bar,  by  the  mark  which 
it  crosses,  the  rise  or  fall  in  inches,  in  ten  feet.  If  the 
span  be  a  rod,  the  line  will  indicate  the  number  of  inches 
per  rod  of  the  rise  or  fall. 

This  instrument  is  used  thus:  The  fall  of  the  ditch 
from  end  to  end  being  ascertained  by  the  spirit-level,  and 
the  length  also,  the  fall  per  rod,  or  per  one  hundred  feet, 
may  be  computed.  The  span  is  then  placed  in  the  bottom 
of  the  drain,  from  time  to  time,  to  guide  the  workman,  or 
for  accurate  inspection  of  the  finished  cut.  We  have 
constructed  and  used  this  level,  and  found  it  very  con- 
venient to  test  the  accuracy  of  the  workmen,  who  had 
opened  drains  in  our  absence.  A  ten-foot  span  will  be  found 
as  large  as  can  be  conveniently  carried  about  the  farm. 

For  the  accurate  grading  of  the  bottom  of  drains,  as 
the  work  proceeds,  we  have  in  practice  found  nothing  so 
convenient  and  accurate  as  the  arrangement  which  we 
are  about  to  illustrate. 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS. 


233 


Tlie  object  is  simply  to  draw  a  line  parallel  with  the 
proposed  bottom  of  the  drain,  for  the  laborers  to  work 


Fig.  59. — GBADING  TKENCHES  BT  LINES. 

under,  so  that  they,  as  they  proceed,  may  measure  down 
from  it,  as  a  guide  to  depth.  Having  with  the  spirit- 
level,  ascertained  the  fall  from  end  to  end  of  the  drain,  a 
short  stake  is  set  at  each  end,  and  a  line  is  drawn  from 
one  to  the  other  at  the  requisite  height,  and  supported  by 
the  cross-pieces,  at  suitable  distances,  to  prevent  the 
sagging  of  the  line. 

Suppose  the  drain  to  be  ten  rods  long,  and  that  it  is  in- 
tended to  cut  it  four  feet  deep,  the  natural  fall  being,  from 
end  to  end,  sufficient.  We  drive  a  stake  at  each  end  of 
the  drain,  high  enough  to  attach  to  it  a  line  three  feet 
above  the  surface,  which  will  be  seven  feet  above  the 
bottom  of  the  finished  drain — high  enough  to  be  above  the 
heads  of  the  cutters,  when  standing  near  the  bottom. 

Before  drawing  the  line,  the  drain  may  be  nearly  com- 
pleted. Then  drive  the  intermediate  stakes,  with  the  pro- 
jecting arms,  which  we  will  call  squares,  on  one  side  of 
the  drain,  carefully  sighting  from  one  end  of  the  stake  to 
the  other,  at  the  point  fixed  for  the  line,  and  driving  the 
squares  till  they  are  exactly  even.  Then  attach  a  strong 
small  cord,  not  larger  than  a  chalk  line,  to  one  of  the 
stakes,  and  draw  it  as  tight  as  it  will  bear,  and  secure  it 


234:  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

at  the  other  stake.  The  line  is  now  directly  over  the 
middle  of  the  drain,  seven  feet  from  the  bottom.  Give 
the  cutters,  then,  a  rod  seven  feet  long,  and  let  them  cut 
just  deep  enough  for  the  rod  to  stand  on  the  bottom  and 
touch  the  line.  Practically,  this  has  been  found  by  the 
author,  the  most  accurate  and  satisfactory  method  of 
bringing  drains  to  a  regular  grade. 

Instead  of  a  line,  after  the  end  stakes  have  been  placed, 
a  boning  rod,  as  it  is  called,  may  be  used  thus  :  A  staff  is 
used,  with  a  cross-piece  at  the  top,  and  long  enough,  when 
resting  on  the  proper  bottom  of  the  drain,  to  reach  to  the 
level  of  the  marks  on  the  stakes,  three  feet  above  the 
surface.  Cross-pieces  nailed  to  the  stakes  are  the  most 
conspicuous  marks.  A  person  stands  at  one  stake  sight- 
ing along  to  the  other ;  a  second  person  then  holds  the 
rod  upright  in  the  ditch,  just  touching  the  bottom,  and 
carries  it  thus  along.  If,  while  it  is  moved  along,  its  top 
is  always  in  a  line  with  the  cross-bars  on  the  end  stakes, 
the  fall  is  uniform;  if  it  rise  above,  the  bottom  of  the 
drain  must  be  lowered  ;  if  it  fall  below,  the  bottom  of  the 
drain  must  be  raised.  This  may  be  convenient  enough 
for  mere  inspection  of  works,  but  it  requires  two  persons 
besides  the  cutters,  to  finish  the  drain  by  this  mode  ; 
whereas,  with  the  lines  and  squares,  any  laborer  can  com- 
plete the  work  with  exactness. 

Another  mode  of  levelling,  by  means  of  a  mammoth 
mason's  level,  with  an  improvement,  was  invented  by 
Colonel  Challoner,  and  published  in  the  Journal  of  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society.  It  may  appear  to  some  per- 
sons more  simple  than  the  span  level.  We  give  the  cut 
and  explanation. 

'  I  first  ascertain  what  amount  of  fall  I  can  obtain,  from  the  head 
of  every  drain  to  my  outfall.  Suppose  the  length  of  the  drain  to  be 
96  yards,  and  I  find  I  have  a  fall  of  two  feet,  that  gives  me  a  fall  of 
a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  every  yard.  I  take  a  common  bricklayer's 


DRAINING   IMPLEMENTS. 


235 


level  12  feet  long,  to  the  bottom  of  which  I  attach,  with  screws,  z 
piece  of  wood  the  whole  length,  one  inch  wider  at  one  end  than  at  the 
other,  thereby  throwing  the  level  one  inch  out  of  the  true  horizonta. 


Fig.  60. — CHALLONEB'S  LEVEL. 

line.  When  the  drain  has  got  to  its  proper  depth  at  the  outfall,  I  apply 
the  broadest  end  of  the  level  to  the  mouth ;  and  when  the  plumb-bob 
indicates  the  level  to  be  correct,  the  one-inch  fall  has  been  gained  in 
the  four  yards,  and  so  on.  I  keep  testing  the  drain  as  it  is  dug,  quite 
up  to  the  head,  when  an  unbroken,  even,  and  continuous  fall  of  two 
feet  in  the  whole  96  yards  has  been  obtained." 

SPADES    AND    SHOVELS. 

No  peculiar  tool  is  essential  in  opening  that  part  of  the 
drain  which  is  more  than  a  foot  in 
width.  Shovels  and  spades,  of  the 
forms  usually  found  upon  well-fur- 
nished farms,  and  adapted  to  its 
soil,  will  be  found  sufficient.  A 
Boston  agricultural  house,  a  year 
or  two  since,  sent  out  an  order  to 
London  for  a  complete  set  of  drain- 
ing tools.  In  due  season,  they  re- 
ceived, in  compliance  with  their 
order,  three  spades  of  different  width,  like  those  repre- 
sented in  the  cut. 

These  are  understood  to  be  the  tools  in  common  use  in 


Fig.  61,  62,  63.— DRAIN  SPADES. 


FAKM   DRAINAGE. 


England  and  Scotland,  for  sod-draining,  and 
for  any  other  drains,  indeed,  except  tiles.  The 
widest  is  12  inches  wide,  and  is  nsed  to  re- 
move the  first  spit,  of  about  one  foot  depth. 
The  second  is  12  inches  wide  at  top,  and  8 
at  the  point,  and  the  third,  eight  at  top,  and 
four  at  the  point.  The  narrowest  spade  is 
usually  made  with  a  spur  in  front,  or  what 
the  Irish  call  a  treade-r,  on  which  to  place  the 
foot  in  driving  it  into  the  earth. 

For  wedge  drains,  these  spades  are  made 
narrower  than  those   above   represented,  the 
finishing  spade  being  but  two  and  a  half  inches 
wide  at  the  point.     It  will  be  recollected  that 
8pAs°i^IITH    this  kind  of  drainage  is  only  adapted  to  clay 
land.      The    shovels  and   spades  which  have 
been   heretofore  in  most  common  use  in  !N"ew  England 

o 

are  made  with  short  handles,  thus — 

They  are  of  cast-steel,  and 
combine  great  strength  and 
lightness.  Long-handled  shov- 
els and  spades  are  much  pre- 
ferred, usually,  by  Irish  labor- 
ers, whose  fancy  is  worth  con- 
sulting in  matters  with  which 
they  have  so  much  to  do.  We 
believe  their  notion  is  correct, 
that  the  long-handled  tool  is 
the  easier  to  work  with,  at 
almost  any  job. 

In  our  own  draining,  we 
find  the  common  spade,  with 
long  or  short  handle,  to  be 
best  in  marking  out  the  lines 
in  turf ;  and  either  the  spade 
or  common  shovel,  according 


Figs.  65,  66.— COMMON  SHOVEL 
SPADE. 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS.  237 

to  the  nature  of  the  soil,  most  convenient  in  removing  the 
first  foot  of  earth. 

After  this,  if  the  pick  is  used,  a  long-handled  round- 
pointed  shovel,  now  in  common  use  on  our  farms,  is  found 
convenient,  until  the  ditch  is  too  narrow  for  its  use.  Then 
the  same  shovel,  turned  up  at  the  sides -so  as  to  form  a 
narrow  scoop,  will  be  found  better  than  any  tool  we  yet 
have  to  remove  this  loosened  earth. 

Of  all  the  tools  that  we  have 
ever  seen  in  the  hands  of  an 
Irishman,  in  ditching,  nothing 
approximates  to  the  true  Irish 
spade.  It  is  a  very  clumsy,  un- 
gainly-looking implement  used 
in  the  old  country  both  for  ditch- 
ing, and  for  ridging  for  potatoes, 
being  varied  somewhat  in  width, 
according  to  the  intended  use. 
For  stony  soil,  it  is  made  narrower 
and  stronger,  while  for  the  bog 
it  is  broader  and  lighter.  The 
Irish  blacksmiths  in  this  country 

,       ,.        *      Figs.  67,  68.— LONG-HANDLED  ROUNI> 

usually  know  now  to  make  them,         SHOVEL.  SCOOP  SHOVEL. 
and  we  have  got  up  a  pattern  of  them,  which  are  manufac- 
tured by  Laighton  and  Lufkin,  edge-tool  makers,  of  Au- 
burn, ~N.  H.,  which  have  been  tested,  and  found  to  suit  the 
ideas  of  the  Irish  workmen. 

This  is  a  correct  portrait  of  an  Irish  spade  of  our  own 
pattern,  which  has  done  more  in  opening  two  miles  of 
drains  on  our  own  farm,  than  any  other  implement. 

The  spade  of  the  Laighton  and  Lufkin  pattern  weighs 
5  Ibs.,  without  the  handle,  and  is  eighteen  inches  long. 
It  is  of  iron,  except  about  eight  inches  of  the  blade, 
which  is  of  cast  steel,  tempered  and  polished  like  a  chop- 
ping axe.  It  is  considerably  curved,  and  the  workmen 
suit  their  own  taste  as  to  the  degree  of  curvature,  by  put- 


238  FARM   DKAINAGE. 

ting  the  tool  under  a  log  or  rock,  and  bending  it  to  suit 
themselves.  It  is  a  powerful,  strong  imple- 
ment, and  will  cut  off  a  root  of  an  inch  or 
two  diameter  as  readily  as  an  axe.  The  han- 
dle is  of  tough  ash,  and  held  in  place  by  a 
wedge  driven  at  the  side  of  it,  and  can  be 
knocked  out  readily  when  the  spade  needs 
new  steel,  or  any  repair.  The  length  of '  the 
handle  is  three  feet  eight  inches,  and  the 
diameter  about  one  and  one-fourth  inches.  The 
wedge  projects,  and  forms  a  "  treader,"  broad 
and  firm,  on  which  the  foot  comes  down, 
to  drive  the  spade  into  the  ground. 

We  have  endeavored  to  have  the  market 
supplied  with  the  Irish  spades,  because,  in  the 
hands  of  such  Irishmen  as  have  used  them 
"at  home,"  we  find  them  a  most  effective 
tool.  We  are  met  with  all  sorts  of  reason- 
able theoretical  objections  on  the  part  of  im- 
plement sellers,  and  of  farmers,  who  never 
saw  an  Irish  spade  in  use.  "  Would  not  the 
tool  be  better  if  it  were  wider  and.  lighter," 
asks  one.  "I  think  it  would  be  better  if  the 
spur,  or  "treader,"  were  movable  and  of 
iron,  so  as  to  be  put  on  the  other  side  or  in 
front,"  suggests  another.  "  It  seems  as  if 
it  would  work  better,  if  it  were  straight," 
g-SFA^.BI9H  adds  a  third.  "Would  it  not  hold  the 
dirt  better  if  it  were  a  little  hollowing  on  the  front," 
queries  a  fourth  "  ~No  doubt,"  we  reply,  "  there  might 
be  a  very  good  implement  made,  wider  and  lighter, 
without  a  wooden  treader,  and  turned  up  at  the  sides,  to 
hold  the  earth  better,  but  it  would  not  be  an  Irish  spade 
when  finished.  Your  theories  may  be  all  correct  and  de- 
monstrable by  the  purest  mathematics,  but  the  question 
is,  with  what  ±ool  .will  Patrick:  do  the  most  work  ?  If  ha 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS.  239 

recognizes  the  Irish  spade  as  an  institution  of  his  country, 
as  a  part  of  *  home,'  you  might  as  well  attempt  to  reason 
him  out  of  his  faith  in  the  Pope,  as  convince  him  that  his 
spade  is  not  perfect."  Our  man,  James,  believes  in  the  in- 
fallibility of  both.  There  is  no  digging  on  the  farm  that 
his  spade  is  not  adapted  to.  To  mark  out  a  drain  in 
the  turf  by  a  line,  he  mounts  his  spade  with  one  foot,  and 
hops  backward  on  the  other,  with  a  celerity  surprising  to 
behold.  Then  he  cuts  the  sod  in  squares,  and,  with  a 
sleight  of  hand,  which  does  not  come  by  nature,  as  Dog- 
berry says  reading  and  writing  come,  throws  out  the  first 
spit.  When  he  comes  on  to  the  gravel  or  hard  clay, 
where  another  man  would  use  a  pick-axe,  his  heavy  boot 
comes  down  upon  the  treader,  and  drives  the  spade  a  foot 
or  more  deep  ;  and  if  a  root  is  encountered,  a  blow  or  two 
easily  severs  it.  The  last  foot  at  the  bottom  of  the  four- 
foot  drain,  is  cut  out  for  the  sole-tile  only  four  and  a  halt 
inches  wide,  and  the  sides  of  the  ditch  are  kept  trimmed, 
even  and  straight,  with  the  sharp  steel  edge.  And  it  is 
pleasant  to  hear  James  express  his  satisfaction  with  his 
national  implement.  "  And,  sure,  we  could  do  nothing 
at  this  job,  sir,  without  the  Irish  spade  !"  "And,  sure,  1 
should  like  to  see  a  man  that  will  spade  this  hard  clay 
with  anything  else,  sir!"  On  the  whole,  though  the  Irish 
spade  does  wonders  on  our  farm,  we  recommend  it  only 
for  Irishmen,  who  know  how  to  handle  it.  In  our  own 
hands,  it  is  as  awkward  a  thing  as  we  ever  took  hold 
of,  and  we  never  saw  any  man  but  an  Irishman,  who  could 
use  it  gracefully  and  effectively. 

Bottoming  Tools. — The  only  tools  which  are  wanted  of 
peculiar  form  in  draining,  are  such  as  are  used  in  forming 
the  narrow  part  of  the  trenches  at  the  bottom.  We  can 
get  down  two  feet,  or  even  three,  with  the  common  spade 
and  pick-axe,  and  in  most  kinds  of  drainage,  except  with 
tiles,  it  is  necessary  to  have  the  lottom  as  wide,  at  least, 


240 


FARM  DRAINAGE. 


as  a  spade.  In  tile-draining,  the  narrower  the  trench  the 
better,  and  in  laying  cylindrical  pipes  without  collars,  the 
bottom  of  the  drain  should  exactly  fit  the  pipes,  to  hold 
them  in  line. 

Although  round  pipes  are  generally  used  in  England, 
we  have  known  none  used  in  America  until  the  past 
season — the  sole-pipe  takicg  their  place.  As  the  sole-pipe 
has  a  flat  bottom,  a  different  tool  is  required  to  finish  its 
resting-place,  from  that  adapted  to  the  round  pipe.  As 
we  have  not,  however,  arrived  quite  at  the  bottom,  we 
will  return  to  the  tools  for  removing  the  last  foot  of 
earth. 

And  first,  we  give  from  Morton,  the  Birmingham  spades 
referred  to  by  Mr.  Den  ton,  in  his  letter,  quoted  in  this 
chapter.  They  are  the  theoretically  perfect  tools  for 
removing  the  last  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  of  soil  in  a 
four  or  five-foot  drain.  Mr.  Gisborne  says  of  the  drain 
properly  formed : 


"  It  is  wrought  in  the  shape 
of  a  wedge,  brought  in  the  bot- 
tom to  the  narrowest  limit  which 
will  admit  the  collar,  by  tools 
admirably  adapted  to  that  pur- 
pose. The  foot  of  the  operator 
is  never  within  twenty  inches  of 
the  floor  of  the  drain ;  his  tools" 
are  made  of  iron,  plated  on  steel, 
and  never  lose  their  sharpness, 
even  when  worn  to  the  stumps  • 
because,  as  the  softer  material, 
the  iron,  wears  away,  the  sharp 
steel  edge  is  always  prominent." 

This  poetical  view  of 
digging  drains,  meets  us  at 
every  turn,  and  we  are 
beset  with  inquiries  for 


Fig  70. 


Fig.  71. 


Fig.  74 


BIRMINGHAM  SPADES. 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS.  241 

these  wonderful  implements.  We  do  not  intimate  that 
Mr.  Gisborne,  and  those  who  so  often  quote  the  above 
language,  are  not  reliable.  Mr.  Gisborne  "  is  an  honorable 
man,  so  are  they  all  honorable  men ;"  but  we  must  reform 
our  tiles,  and  our  land  too,  most  of  it,  we  fear,  before  we 
can  open  four-foot  trenches,  and  lay  pipes  in  them,  with- 
out putting  a  foot  "  within  twenty  inches  of  the  floor  of 
the  drain." 

In  the  first  place,  we  have  great  doubt  whether  pipes 
can  be  laid  close  enough  to  make  the  joints  secure  with- 
out collars,  unless  carefully  laid  by  hand,  or  unless  they 
are  round  pipes,  rolled  in  the  making,  when  half  dried, 
and  so  made  straight  and  even  at  the  ends.  In  laying 
such  sole-pipes  as  we  have  laid,  it  requires  some  care  to 
adjust  them,  so  as  to  make  the  joints  close.  Most  of  them 
are  warped  in  drying  or  burning,  so  that  spaces  of  half  an 
inch  will  often  be  left  at  the  top  or  side,  where  two  are 
laid  end  to  end.  Now,  if  the  foot  never  goes  to  the  bottom 
of  the  drain,  the  pipes  must  be  laid  with  a  hook  or  pipe- 
layer,  such  as  will  be  presently  described,  which  may  do 
well  for  pipes  and  collars,  because  the  collar  covers  the 
joint,  so  that  it  is  of  no  importance  if  it  be  somewhat 
open. 

Again,  we  know  of  no  method  of  working  with  a  pick- 
axe, except  by  standing  as  low  as  the  bottom  of  the  work. 
No  man  can  pick  twenty  inches,  or  indeed  any  inches, 
lower  than  he  stands,  because  he  must  move  forward  in 
this  work,  and  not  backward.  Each  land-owner  may 
judge  for  himself,  whether  his  land  requires  the  pick  in 
its  excavation. 

In  soft  clays,  no  doubt,  with  suitable  tools,  the  trench 
may  be  cut  a  foot,  or  more,  lower  than  the  feet  of  the 
workman.  We  have  seen  it  done  in  our  land,  in  a  sandy 
soil,  with  the  Irish  spade,  though,  as  we  used  sole-pipes, 
our  "  pipe-layer"  was  a  live  Irishman,  who  walked  in  the 
11 


242 


FARM    DJBAINAGE. 


trench    backwards,   putting    down   the    pipes   with    his 
hand. 

"We  are  satisfied,  that  the  instances  in  which  trenches 
may  be  opened  a  foot  or  two  below  the  feet  of  the  work- 
men, are  the  exceptions,  and  not  the  rule,  and  that  in 
laying  sole-tiles,  the  hand  of  a  careful  workman  must 
adjust  each  tile  in  its  position. 

We  have  found  a  narrow  spade,  four  inches  wide,  with 
a  long  handle,  a  convenient  tool  for  finishing  drains  for 
sole-tiles. 

We  have   thoroughly  tested     Fig.  78.  Fig.  74. 

the  matter ;  and  in  all  kinds  of 
soil,  give  a  decided  preference 
to  spades  as  broad  at  the  point 
as  at  the  heel.  We  have  used 
common  long-handled  spades, 
cut  down  with  shears  at  a  ma- 
chine-shop, into  these  shapes. 

The  spade  of  equal  width, 
works  much  more  easily  in  the 
bottom  of  a  trench,  because  its 
corners  do  not  catch,  as  do 
those  of  the  other.  The  pointed 
spade  is  apparently  nearer  the 
shape  of  the  sloping  ditch,  but 
such  tools  cannot  be  used  ver- 
tically, and  when  the  heel  of 
the  pointed  spade  is  lowered,  it 
catches  in  the  side  of  the  trench, 
before  the  point  reaches  the 

bottom.  NABBOW  SPADES  FOE 

Very  strong  spades,  of  various  width,  from  three  to 
eight  inches,  and  thick  at  the  heel,  to  operate  as  a  wedge, 
will  be  found  most  suitable  for  common  use.  The 
narrowest  spades  should  have  the  spur,  as  shown  in  Fig. 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS. 


243 


64,  because  there  is  not  room  for  the  foot  by  the  side  o* 
the  handle. 

The  various  tools  for  finishing  the  bottoms  of  drains,  a 
figured  in  Morton,  are  the  following  • 


Fig.  75.  Fig.  76.  Fig.  77.       Fig.  78.  Fig  T9- 

ENGLISH  BOTTOMING  TOOLS. 

The  last  implement,  which  is  a  scoop  for  the  bottom  of 
trenches  for  round  pipes,  is  one  of  the  tools  mentioned  in 
Mr.  Den  ton's  letter,  as  not  being  found  to  the  taste  of  his 
workmen.  For  scooping  out  our  flat-bottomed  trenches, 
we  use  a  tool  like  Fig.  77.  For  boggy  land,  soft  clay,  or, 
indeed,  any  land  where  water  is  running  at  the  time  of 


241-  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

the  excavation,  scoops  like  the  following  wLl  be  found 
convenient  for  flat  bottoms. 


Fig.  80.  Fig.  81.  Fig.  82. 

DBAWING  AND  PLSHINO  SCOOP,  AND  PIPE-LAYER. 

The  pushing  scoop  (Fig.  81),  as  it  is  called,  may  be  made 
of  a  common  long-handled  shovel,  turned  up  at  the  sides 
by  a  blacksmith,  leaving  it  of  the  desired  width. 

The  pipe-layer,  of  which  mention  has  so  often  been 
made,  is  a  little  implement  invented  by  Mr.  Parkes,  for 
placing  round  pipes  and  collars  in  narrow  trenches,  with- 
out stepping  into  them. 

The  following  sketch,  by  our  friend  Mr.  Shedd,  shows  the 
pipe-layer  in  use.  The  cross  section  of  the  land,  shown  in 
front,  represents  it  as  having  had  the  advantage  of 
draining,  by  which  the  water-table  is  brought  to  a  level 
with  the  bottom  of  the  (Jrain,  as  shown  by  the  heavy  shad- 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS. 


245 


ing.    An  "Irish  spade"  and  a  pipe-layer  are  shown  lying 
on  the  ground. 


Fig.  83. — PIPE-LAYING. 

The  pick-axes  commonly  used  in  excavation  of  trendies, 
are  in  the  following  forms  : 


Fig.  84,  85.— PICK-AXES. 


24:6 


FARM   DKAINAGE. 


Pick-axes  may  be  light  or  heavy,  according  to  the  na* 
ture  of  the  soil.  A  chisel  at  one  end,  and  point  at  the 
other,  is  found  best  in  most  cases. 

A  Drain-gauge  is  usually  mentioned  in  a 
list  of  draining  tools.  It  is  used  when  ditches 
are  designed  for  stone  or  other  material  than 
tiles,  and  where  the  width  is  important.  In 
tile-draining  the  width  is  entirely  immaterial. 
If  opened  by  the  rod,  it  is  only  important  that 
they  be  of  proper  depth  and  inclination,  with 
the  bottom  wide  enough  for  the  tile. 

The  above  figure  shows  the  usual  form  of 
the  drain-gauge.  Below,  we  give  from  Mor- 
ton, drawings,  and  a  description  of  Elkington'a 
augers  for  boring  in  the  bottoms  of  ditches. 

"The  cut  annexed  represents  the  auger  employed 
by  Elkington,  where  a  b  and  c  are  different  forms  of 
the  tool  ]  d.  a  portion  of  the  shaft  \  e,  with  the  wedges,  h  A,  the  cross 
handle  :  and  f  and  g  additional  pieces  for  grasping  the  shaft,  and  so 
enabling  more  than  one  person  to  work  at  it."  The  auger-hole  ought 
to  be  a  little  at  one  side  of  the  drain,  as  in  Fig.  3,  at  page  35,  so 
that  the  water  may  not  rise  at  right  angles  to  the  flow  of  water  in  it, 
and  obstruct  its  current. 


Fig.  86.— DRAIN 
GATJGE. 


d 

Fig.  87  —  ELKINGTON'S  DBAINTNG  ATTGEB. 


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DRAINING   IMPLEMENTS.  247 

DKAINING-PLOWS   AND   DITCH-DIGGERS. 

The  man  who  can  invent  and  construct  a  machine  that 
shall  be  capable  of  cutting  four-foot  ditches  for  pipe-drains, 
with  facility,  will  deserve  well  of  his  country. 

It  is  not  essential  that  the  drain  be  cut  to  its  full  depth 
at  one  operation.  If  worked  by  oxen  or  horses,  it  may  go 
several  times  over  the  work,  taking  out  a  few  inches  at 
each  time.  If  moved  by  a  capstan,  or  other  slowly-oper- 
ating power,  it  must  work  more  thoroughly,  so  as  not  to 
consume  too  much  time. 

With  a  lever,  such  as  is  used  in  Willis's  Stump  Puller, 
sufficient  power  for  any  purpose  may  be  applied.  An 
implement  like  a  subsoil  plow,  constructed  to  run  four 
feet  deep,,  and  merely  doing  the  work  of  the  pick,  would 
be  of  great  assistance.  Prof.  Mapes  says  he  has  made 
use  of  such  an  implement  with  great  advantage.  For  tile- 
drains,  the  narrower  the  ditch  the  better,  if  it  be  only 
wide  enough  to  receive  the  tiles.  A  mere  slit,  four  inches 
wide,  if  straight  and  of  even  inclination  at  the  bottom, 
would  be  the  best  kind  of  ditch,  the  pipes  being  laid  in 
with  a  pipe-layer.  But  if  the  ditch  is  to  be  finished  by 
the  machine,  it  is  essential  that  it  be  so  contrived  that  it 
will  grade  the  bottom,  and  not  leave  it  undulating  like 
the  surface.  Fowler's  Drain  Plow  is  said  to  be  so  arrang- 
ed, by  improvements  since  its  first  trials,  as  to  attain  this 
object. 

Having  thus  briefly  suggested  some  of  the  points  to  be 
kept  in  mind  by  inventors,  we  will  proceed  to  give  some 
account  of  such  machines  as  come  nearest  to  the  wants  of 
the  community.  Fowler's  Draining-Plow  would  meet 
the  largest  wants  of  the  public,  were  it  cheap  enough, 
and  really  reliable  to  perform  what  it  is  said  to  perform. 
The  author  saw  this  implement  in  England,  but  not  in 
operation,  and  it  seems  impossible,  from  inspection  of  it, 


248  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

as  well  as  from  the  theory  of  its  operation,  that  it  can  suc- 
ceed, if  at  all,  in  any  but  soft  homogeneous  clay.  The 
idea  is,  however,  so  bold,  and  so  much  is  claimed  for  the 
implement,  that  some  description  of  it  seems  indispensa- 
ble in  a  work  like  this. 

The  pipes,  of  common  drain  tiles,  are  strung  on  a  rope, 
and  this  rope,  with  the  pipes,  is  drawn  through  the 
ground,  following  a  plug  like  the  foot  of  a  subsoil  plow, 
leaving  the  pipes  perfectly  laid,  and  the  drain  completed 
at  a  single  operation.  (See  Fig.  88.) 

The  work  is  commenced  by  opening  a  short  piece  of 
ditch  by  hand,  and  strings  of  pipes,  each  about  50  f°et 
long,  are  added  as  the  work  proceeds;  and  when  the  ditch 
is  completed,  the  rope  is  withdrawn.  "When  the  surface 
is  uneven,  the  uniform  slope  is  preserved  by  means  of  a 
wheel  and  screw,  which  governs  the  plug,  or  coulter, 
raising  or  lowering  it  at  pleasure.  A  man  upon  the 
framework  controls  this  wheel,  guided  by  a  sight  on  the 
frame,  and  a  cross-staff  at  the  end  of  the  field. 

Drains,  40  rods  long,  are  finished  at  one  operation. 
This  plow  has  been  carefully  tested  in  England.  Its  work 
has  been  uncovered  when  completed,  and  found  perfect  in 
every  respect.  The  great  expense  of  the  machine,  and 
the  fact  that  it  is  only  adapted  to  clay  land  free  from  ob- 
structions, has  prevented  its  general  use.  We  cannot 
help  believing  that,  by  the  aid  of  steam,  on  our  prairies, 
at  least,  some  such  machine  may  be  found  practicable  and 
economical. 

PRATT'S  DITCH  DIGGER, 

Patented  by  Pratt  &  Bro.,  of  Canandaigua,  is  attracting 
much  attention.  We  have  not  seen  it  in  operation,  nor 
have  we  seen  statements  which  satisfy  us  that  it  is  just 
what  is  demanded.  It  is  stated,  in  the  Country  Gentle- 
fnan,  to  be  incapable  of  cutting  a  ditch  more  than  two 
and  a  half  feet  deep.  A  machine  that  will  do  so  much  ;a 


DRAINING    IMPLEMENTS.  249 

not  to  be  despised ;  but  more  than  one  halt'  the  digging 
remains  of  a  four-foot  ditch,  after  two  and  a  half  feet  are 
opened,  and  we  want  an  implement  to  do  the  lowest  and 
worst  half.  It  is  stated  that,  in  one  instance,  a  ditch,  60 
rods  long,  about  two  feet  deep,  in  hard  clay,  was  cut  with 
this  machine,  worked  by  two  horses,  in  five  hours. 

We  trust  that  the  enterprising  inventors  will  perfect 
their  implement,  so  that  it  will  open  drains  four  feet 
deep,  and  thus  meet  the  great  want  of  the  public.  It  is 
not  to  be  expected  that  any  such  implement  can  be  made 
to  operate  in  ground  full  of  stones  and  roots ;  and  inven- 
tors should  not  be  discouraged  by  the  continual  croakings 
of  those  sinister  birds,  which  see  nothing  but  obstacles, 
and  prophecy  only  failure. 


Fig.  89.— PRATT'S  DITCH  DIGGER. 

The  drain  plow  was  first  introduced  into  Scotland  by 
M'Ewan.  The  soil  in  his  district  was  mostly  a  strong 
unctuous  clay,  free  from  stones.  He  constructed  an  im- 
mense plow,  worked  by  12  or  16  horses,  by  means  of  which 
a  furrow-slice,  16  inches  in  depth,  was  turned  out ;  and, 
by  a  modification  of  the  plow,  a  second  slice  was  removed, 
to  the  depth,  in  all,  of  two  feet.  This  plow  is  expensive 
and  heavy,  and  incapable  of  working  to  sufficient  depth. 

Mr.  Paul,  of  Norfolk  Co.,  England,  has  lately  invented 
an  ingenious  machine  for  cutting  drains,  of  which  we  give 
an  elevation. 

It  is  worked  by  a  chain  and  capstan,  by  horses,  and,  of 
11* 


250 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


course,  may  be  operated  by  steam  or  lever  power.  It  is 
drawn  forward,  and,  as  it  moves,  it  acts  as  a  slotting  ma- 
chine on  the  land,  the  tools  on  the  circumference  of  the 
acting-wheel  taking  successive  bites  of  the  soil,  each 
.lifting  a  portion  from  the  full  depth  to  which  it  is  desired 

that  the  trench  should  be 
cut,  and  laying  the  earth 
thus  removed  on  the  sur 
face  at  either  side.  There 
is  a  lifting  apparatus  at  the 
end  of  the  machine,  by 
which  the  cutting  -  wheel 
may  be  raised  or  lowered, 
according  to  the  unevenness 
of  the  surface,  in  order  to 
secure  a  uniform  fall  in  the 
bottom  of  the  drain.  The 
whole  process  is  carried  on 
at  the  rate  of  about  four 
feet  per  minute,  and  it  re- 
sults, on  suitable  soils,  in 
cutting  a  drain  from  three 
to  five  feet  deep,  leaving  it 
in  a  finished  state,  with  a 
level  bottom  for  the  tiles  to 
rest  upon.  We  give  the 
cut  and  statement  from  the 
Cyclopaedia  of  Agriculture, 
and  if  the  machine  shall 
prove  what  it  is  represented 
to  be,  we  see  but  little  more 
to  be  desired  in  a  ditching 
machine.  The  principle  of 
this  implement  appears  to 

Fig.  90.- -PAUL'S  DITCHING  MACHINE.  US    to    be     the    COlTGCt    One, 


DRAINING   IMPLEMENTS.  251 

and  we  see  no  reason  to  doubt  the  statement  of  ita 
performance. 

Routt's  drain  plow  is  designed  for  surface-draining 
merely.  We  give,  from  the  New  England  Farmer,  a 
statement  of  its  merits,  as  detailed  by  a  correspondent 
who  saw  it  at  the  exhibition  of  the  U.  S.  Agricultural 
Society  at  Richmond,  in  1858 : 

"  One  of  the  most  attractive  implements  on  the  Fail- 
ground,  to  the  farmer,  was  A.  P.  Routt's  patent  drain 
plow.  This  implement  makes  a  furrow  a  foot  deep,  two 
feet  arid  a  half  wide  at  the  top,  and  four  inches  wide  at 
the  bottom,  the  sides  sloping  at  such  an  angle  as  to  insure 
the  drain  from  falling  in  by  the  frost,  the  whole  being 
perfectly  completed  at  one  operation  by  this  plow,  or 
tool.  Those  who  have  tried  it  say  it  is  the  very  thing  for 
surface-draining,  which,  on  wet  lands,  is  certainly  very 
beneficial  where  under-draining  has  not  been  done.  The 
manufacturer  resides  in  Somerset,  Orange  County,  Ya. 
The  plow  is  so  made  that  it  opens  a  deep  furrow,  turning 
both  to  the  right  and  left,  and  is  followed  by  a  heavy  iron 
roller  that  hardens  the  earth,  both  on  the  sides  and  the 
bottom  of  the  surface-drain,  thus  doing  very  handsome 
work.  The  price,  as  heretofore  stated,  is  $25,  and  with  it, 
a  man  can,  with  a  good  pair  of  team  horses,  surface-drain 
60  acres  of  land  a  day." 


252  FARM    DRAINAGE 


CHAPTER    XII. 

PRACTICAL     DIRECTIONS    FOR     OPENING    DRAINS     AND     LAYING 

TILES. 

Begin  at  the  Outlet.— Use  of  Plows.— Levelling  the  Bottom.  —  Where  to 
begin  to  lay  Pipes.  —  Mode  of  Procedure. — Covering  Pipes. — Securing 
Joints. — Filling. — Securing  Outlets. — Plans. 

IN  former  chapters,  we  have  spoken  minutely  of  the 
arrangement,  depth,  distance,  and  width  of  drains ;  and  in 
treating  of  tools  for  drainage,  we  have  sufficiently  de- 
scribed the  use  of  levelling  instruments  and  of  the  various 
digging  tools. 

"We  assume  here,  that  the  engineering  has  been  already 
done,  and  that  the  whole  system  has  been  carefully  staked 
out,  so  that  every  main,  sub-main,  and  minor  is  distinctly 
located,  and  the  fall  accurately  ascertained.  Until  so 
much  has  been  accomplished,  we  are  unprepared  to  put 
the  first  spade  into  the  ground. 

We  propose  to  give  our  own  experience  as  to  the  con- 
venient method  of  procedure,  with  such  suggestions  as 
occur  to  us,  for  those  who  are  differently  situated  from 
ourselves. 

The  work  of  excavation  must  begin  at  the  outlet,  so 
that  whatever  water  is  met  with,  may  pass  readily  away ; 
and  the  outlet  must  be  kept  always  low  enough  for  this 
purpose.  If  there  is  considerable  fall,  it  may  not  be  best 
to  deepen  the  lower  end  of  the  main  to  its  full  extent,  at 
first,  because  the  main,  though  first  opened,  must  be  the 


PRACTICAL    DIRECTIONS.  253 

last  in  which  the  pipes  are  laid,  and  may  cave  in,  if  un- 
necessarily deep  at  first.  In  many  cases  there  is  fall 
enough,  so  that  the  upper  minors  may  be  laid  and  find 
sufficient  fall,  before  the  lower  end  of  the  main  is  half 
opened. 

"With  a  garden  line  drawn  straight,  mark  out  the  drain, 
with  a  sharp  spade,  on  both  sides,  and  remove  the  turf. 
If  it  is  desired  to  use  the  turf  for  covering  the  pipes,  or 
to  replace  it  over  the  drains,  when  finished,  it  should  at 
first  be  placed  in  heaps  outside  the  line  of  the  earth  to  be 
thrown  out. 

A  plow  is  used  sometimes  to  turn  out  the  sod  and  soil ; 
but  we  have  few  plowmen  who  can  go  straight  enough  ; 
aiifl  in  plowing,  the  soil  is  left  too  near  to  the  ditch  for 
convenience,  and  the  turf  is  torn  in  pieces  and  buried,  so 
as  not  to  be  fit  for  use.  Usually,  it  will  be  found  con- 
venient to  remove  the  turf,  if  there  be  any,  with  a  spade, 
by  a  line.  Then,  a  plow  may  be  used  for  turning  out  the 
next  spit,  and  the  drain  may  be  kept  straight,  which  is 
indispensable  to  good  work.  A  good  ditching-machine 
is,  of  course,  the  thing  needful ;  but  we  are  endeavoring 
in  these  directions  to  do  our  best  without  it.  We  have 
opened  our  own  trenches  entirely  by  hand  labor,  finding 
laborers  more  convenient  than  oxen  or  horses,  and  no 
more  expensive. 

Many  have  used  the  plow  in  the  first  foot  or  two  of  the 
cutting,  but  it  is  not  here  "  the  first  step  which  costs,"  but 
the  later  steps.  After  the  first  foot  is  removed,  if  the 
ground  be  hard,  a  pick  or  subsoil  plow  must  be  used.  A 
subsoil  plow,  properly  constructed,  may  be  made  very 
useful  in  breaking  up  the  subsoil,  though  there  is  a  diffi- 
culty in  working  cattle  astride  of  a  deep  ditch,  encum- 
bered with  banks  of  earth.  A  friend  of  ours  used,  in 
opening  drains,  a  large  bull  in  single  harness,  trained  to 
walk  in  the  ditch  ;  but  the  width  of  a  big  bull  is  a  some- 


254  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

what  larger  pattern  for  a  drain,  than  will  be  found  eco- 
nomical. 

The  ingenuity  of  farmers  in  the  use  of  a  pair  of  heavy 
wheels,  with  a  chain  attached  to  the  axle,  so  that  the  cattle 
may  both  walk  on  one  side  of  the  ditch,  or  by  the  use  of 
long  double-trees,  so  that  horses  may  go  outside  the  banks 
of  earth,  will  generally  be  found  sufficient  to  make  the 
most  of  their  means. 

It  will  be  found  convenient  to  place  the  soil  at  one  side, 
and  the  subsoil  at  the  other,  for  convenience  in  returning 
both  right  side  up  to  their  places. 

Having  worked  down  to  the  depth  of  two  feet  or  more, 
the  ditch  should  be  too  narrow  for  the  use  of  common 
spades,  and  the  narrow  tools  already  described  will  be 
found  useful.  The  Irish  spade,  on  our  own  fields,  is  in 
use  from  the  first  to  the  last  of  the  excavation ;  and  at  three 
feet  depth,  we  have  our  trench  but  about  six  inches  in 
width,  and  at  the  bottom,  at  four  feet  depth,  it  is  but  four 
inches — just  wide  enough  for  the  laborer  to  stand  in  it,  with 
one  foot  before  the  other. 

Having  excavated  to  nearly  our  depth,  we  use  the  lines, 
as  described  in  another  place,  for  levelling,  and  the  men 
working  under  them,  grade  the  bottom  as  accurately  as 
possible.  If  flat-bottomed  tiles  are  used,  the  ditch  is  ready 
for  them.  If  round  pipes  are  used,  a  round  bottoming 
tool  must  be  used  to  form  a  semi- circular  groove  in  which 
the  pipes  are  to  lie. 

"We  have  not  forgotten  that  English  drainers  tell  us  of 
tools  and  their  use,  whereby  drains  may  be  open  twenty 
inches  lower  than  the  feet  of  the  workman  ;  but  we  have 
never  chanced  to  see  that  operation,  and  are  skeptical  as 
to  the  fact  that  work  can  thus  be  performed  economically, 
except  in  very  peculiar  soils.  That  such  a  crack  may  be 
thus  opened,  is  not  doubted ;  but  we  conceive  of  no  means 
by  which  earth,  that  requires  the  pick,  can  be  moved  to 


PRACTICAL   DIRECTIONS.  255 

advantage,  without  the  workman  standing  as  low  as  his 
work. 

Having  opened  the  main,  and  finished,  as  we  have  de- 
scribed, the  minor  which  enters  the  main  at  its  highest 
point,  we  are  ready  to  lay  the  tiles. 

By  first  laying  the  upper  drain,  it  will  be  seen  that  we 
may  finish  and  secure  our  work  to  the  junction  of  the  first 
minor  with  its  main. 

Convey  the  pipes  by  wagon  or  otherwise,  as  is  con- 
venient, to  the  side  of  the  ditch  where  the  soil  lies,  and 
where  there  is  least  earth,  and  lay  them  close  to  the  edge 
of  the  ditch,  end  to  end  the  whole  way,  discarding  all  im- 
perfect pieces.  If  it  is  designed  to  use  gravel,  turf,  or 
other  covering  for  the  pipes,  lay  it  also  in  heaps  along  the 
trench.  Then  place  the  first  pipe  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
ditch,  with  a  brick  or  stone  against  its  upper  end,  to  ex- 
clude earth.  We  have  heretofore  used  sole-tiles,  with  flat 
bottoms,  and  have  found  that  a  thin  chip  of  wood,  not  an 
eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  four  by  two  inches  in  size,  such 
as  may  be  found  at  shoe  shops  in  New  England,  assists 
very  much  in  securing  an  even  bearing  for  the  tiles.  It 
is  placed  so  that  the  ends  of  two  tiles  rest  on  it,  and  serves 
to  keep  them  in  line  till  secured  by  the  earth.  A  man 
walking  backward  in  the  ditch,  takes  the  tiles  from  the 
.bank,  carefully  adjusting  them  in  line  and  so  as  to  make 
good  joints,  and  he  can  lay  half  a  mile  or  more  in  a  day, 
if  the  bottom  is  well  graded.  Another  should  follow  on 
the  bank,  throwing  in  a  shovel  full  of  gravel  or  tan,  if 
either  is  used,  upon  the  joint. 

If  turf  is  to  be  used  to  secure  the  joint,  pieces  should  be 
cut  thin  and  narrow,  and  laid  along  the  bank,  and  the 
man  in  the  ditch  must  secure  each  joint  as  he  proceeds. 
It  will  be  found  to  cost  twice  the  labor,  at  least,  to  use 
turf,  as  it  is  to  use  gravel  or  tan,  if  they  are  at  hand. 

If  the  soil  be  clay,  we  do  not  believe  it  is  best  to  return 


256  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

it  directly  upon  the  tiles,  because  it  is  liable  to  puddle  and 
stop  the  joint,  and  then  to  crack  and  admit  silt  at  the  joint, 
while  gravel  is  not  thus  affected.  We  prefer  to  place  the 
top  soil  of  clay  land,  next  the  pipes,  rather  than  the  clay 
in  the  condition  in  which  it  is  usually  found. 

As  to  small  stones  above  the  pipes,  we  should  decid- 
edly object  to  them.  They  are  unnecessary  to  the  opera- 
tion of  the  drain,  and  they  allow  the  water  to  come  in,  in 
currents,  on  to  the  top  of  the  pipes,  in  heavy  storms  or 
showers,  and  so  endanger  their  security.  The  practice  of 
placing  stones  above  the  tiles  is  abandoned  by  all  scien- 
tific drainers. 

We  have,  in  England,  seen  straw  placed  over  the  joints 
of  pipes,  but  it  seems  an  inconvenient  and  insecure  prac- 
tice. Long  straw  cannot  be  well  placed  in  such  narrow 
openings,  and  it  is  likely  to  sustain  the  earth  enough,  so 
that  when  thrown  in,  it  will  not  settle  equally  around  the 
pipes  ;  whereas  a  shovelfull  of  gravel  or  other  earth  sifted 
in  carefully,  will  at  once  fasten  them  in  place. 

Having  laid  and  partially  covered  the  first  or  upper 
drain,  proceed  with  the  next  in  the  same  way,  laying  and 
securing  the  main  or  sub-main,  at  the  same  time,  to  each 
intersection,  thus  carrying  the  work  from  the  highest  point 
down  towards  the  outlet.  After  sufficient  earth  has  been 
thrown  in  to  make  the  work  safe  against  accidents  by 
rain,  or  caving  in  of  earth,  the  filling  may  be  completed 
at  leisure.  Mr.  Johnston,  of  Geneva,  uses  for  this  purpose 
a  plow,  having  a  double-tree  nine  and  a  half  feet  long,  to 
enable  a  horse  to  go  on  each  side  of  the  ditch. 

We  suggest  that  a  side-hill  plow  might  well  enough  be 
used  with  horses  tandem,  or  with  oxen  and  cart  wheels 
and  draughts. 

The  filling,  however,  will  be  found  a  small  matter, 
compared  with  the  digging.  In  laying  pipes  in  narrow 
trenches,  a  tool  called  a  pipe-layer  is  sometimes  used,  a 


PRACTICAL    DIRECTIONS.  257 

cut  of  which,  showing  its  mode  of  use,  may  be  found  in 
another  place. 

In  tilling  drains  where  the  soil  is  partly  clay,  and  partly 
sand  or  gravel,  we  recommend  that  the  clay  be  placed  in 
the  upper  part  of  the  drain,  so  as  to  prevent  water  from 
passing  directly  down  upon  the  pipes,  by  which  they  are 
frequently  displaced  as  soon  as  laid. 

If  the  work  is  completed  in  Autumn,  it  is  well  to  turn 
two  or  three  furrows  from  each  side  on  to  the  drains,  so 
as  to  raise  the  surface  there,  and  prevent  water  from 
cutting  out  the  ditch,  or  standing  above  it.  If  the  land 
is  plowed  in  Autumn,  it  is  best  to  back-furrow  on  to  the 
drains,  leaving  dead  furrows  half  way  between  them,  the 
first  season. 

As  to  the  importance  yf  "securing  the  outlets,  and  the 
manner  of  doing  it,  we  have  spoken  particularly  else- 
where. 

And  here,  again,  we  will  remind  the  beginner,  of  the 
necessity  of  making  and  preserving  accurate  plans  of  the 
work,  so  that  every  drain  may  be  at  any  time  found  by 
measurement.  After  a  single  rotation,  it  is  frequently 
utterly  impossible  to  perceive  upon  the  surface  any  indica- 
tion of  the  line  of  the  drains. 

In  this  connection,  it  may  be  well  perhaps  to  remind 
the  reader,  that  whatever  arrangements  are  made  as  to 
silt-basins,  or  peep-holes,  must  be  included  in  the  general 
plan,  and  executed  as  the  work  proceeds. 


258  FARM:  DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTEE    XHL 

EFFECTS    OF   DRAINAGE    UPON    THE    CONDITION   OF   THE    SOIL. 

Drainage  deepens  the  Soil,  and  gives  the  roots  a  larger  pasture. — Cobbett's 
Lucerne  30  feet  deep. — Mechi's  Parsnips  13  feet  long! — Drainage  pro- 
motes Pulverization. — Prevents  Surface-Washing.— Lengthens  the  Season. 
— Prevents  Freezing  out. — Dispenses  with  Open  Ditches. — Saves  25  per 
cent,  of  Labor. — Promotes  absorption  of  Fertilizing  Substances  from  the 
Air. — Supplies  Air  to  the  Roots. — Drains  run  before  Rain ;  so  do  some 
Springs. — Drainage  warms  the  Soil. — Corn  sprouts  at  55°  ;  Rye  on  Ice. — 
Cold  from  Evaporation.— Heat  will  noi  pass  downward  in  Water. — Count 
Rumford's  Experiments  with  Hot  Water  on  Ice. — Aeration  of  Soil  by 
Drains. 

The  benefits  which  high-lands,  as  we  ordinarily  call 
them,  in  distinction  from  swamp  or  flowed  lands,  derive 
from  drainage,  may  be  arranged  in  two  classes,  mechan- 
ical and  chemical ;  though  it  is  not  easy,  nor,  indeed,  is 
it  important,  to  maintain  this  distinction  in  all  points. 
Among  those  which  partake  rather  of  the  nature  of 
mechanical  changes,  are  the  following : 

Drainage  deepens  the  soil.  Every  one  who  has  at- 
tempted to  raise  deep-rooted  vegetables  upon  half-drained 
swamp-land,  has  observed  the  utter  impossibility  of  induc- 
ing them  to  extend  downward  their  usual  length.  Pars- 
nips and  carrots,  on  such  land,  frequently  grow  large  at 
the  top,  but  divide  into  numerous  small  fibres  just  below 
the  surface,  and  spread  in  all  directions.  No  root,  except 
those  of  aquatic  plants,  will  grow  in  stagnant  water.  If, 
therefore,  it  is  of  any  advantage  to  have  a  deep,  rather 
than  a  shallow  soil,  it  is  manifestly  necessary,  from  this 
consideration  alone,  to  lower  the  line  of  standing  water, 


EFFECTS    OF   DRAINAGE   ON    SOILS.  259 

at  least,  to  the  extent  to  which  the  roots  of  our  cultivated 
crops  descend.  A  deep  soil  is  better  than  a  shallow  one, 
because  it  furnishes  a  more  extensive  feeding-ground  for 
the  roots.  The  elements  of  nutrition,  which  the  plant 
finds  in  the  soil,  are  not  all  upon  the  surface.  Many  of 
them  are  washed  down  by  the  rains  into  the  subsoil,  and 
some  are  found  in  the  decomposing  rocks  themselves. 
These,  the  plants,  by  a  sort  of  instinct,  search  out  and 
find,  as  well  in  the  depths  of  the  earth  as  at  its  surface, 
if  no  obstacle  opposes.  By  striking  deep  roots  again,  the 
plants  stand  more  firmly  in  the  earth,  so  that  they  are 
not  so  readily  drawn  out,  or  shaken  by  the  winds.  In- 
deed, every  one  knows  that  a  soil  two  feet  deep  is  better 
than  one  a  foot  deep  ;  and  market-gardeners  and  nursery- 
men show,  by  their  practice,  that  they  know,  if  others  do 
not,  that  a  trenched  soil  three  feet  deep  is  better  than  one 
of  any  less  depth.  "We  all  know  that  Indian  corn,  in  a 
dry  soil,  sends  down  its  rootlets  two  feet  or  more,  as  well 
as  most  of  the  grasses.  Cobbett  says  :  "  The  lucerne  will 
send  its  roots  thirty  feet  into  a  dry  bottom  !"  The  Chi- 
nese yam,  recently  introduced,  grows  downward  two  or 
three  feet,  The  digging  of  an  acre  of  such  a  crop,  by  the 
way,  on  New  England  soil  generally,  would  require  a 
corps  of  sappers  and  miners,  especially  when  we  consider 
that  the  yam  grows  largest  end  downward.  However, 
the  yam  may  prove  a  valuable  acquisition  to  the  country. 
Every  inch  of  additional  soil  gives  100  tons  of  active  soil 
per  acre. 

Says  Mr.  Den  ton : 

"  I  have  evidence  now  before  me,  that  the  roots  of  the  wheat 
plant,  the  mangold  wurzel,  the  cabbage,  and  the  white  turnip,  fre- 
quently descend  into  the  soil  to  the  depth  of  three  feet.  I  have  myself 
traced  the  roots  of  wheat  nine  feet  deep.  I  have  discovered  the 
roots  of  perennial  grasses  in  drains  four  feet  deep  j  and  I  may  refer  to 
Mr.  Mercer,  of  Newton,  in  Lancashire,  who  has  traced  the  roots  of  rye 
grass  running  for  many  feet  along  a  small  pipe-drain,  after  descending 
four  feet  through  the  soil.  Mr.  Hetlev,  of  Orton,  assures  me  that  he 


260  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

discovered  the  roots  of  the  mangolds,  in  i.  recently  made  drain,  fira 
feet  deep  :  and  the  late  Sir  John  Conroyhad  many  newly-made  drains, 
four  feet  deep,  stopped  by  the  roots  of  the  same  plants." 

Mr.  Sheriff  Mechi's  parsnips,  however,  distance  any- 
thing in  the  way  of  deep  rooting  that  has  yet  been  re- 
corded. The  Sheriff  is  a  very  deep  drainer,  and  an  en- 
thusiast in  agriculture,  and  Nature  seems  to  delight  to 
humor  his  tastes,  by  performing  a  great  many  experiments 
at  his  famous  place  called  Tiptree  If  all.  He  stated,  at  a 
public  meeting,  that,  in  his  neighborhood,  where  a  crop 
of  parsnips  was  growing  on  the  edge  of  a  clay  pit,  the 
roots  were  observed  to  descend  13  feet  6  inches ;  in  fact, 
the  whole  depth  to  which  this  pit  had  once  been  filled  up ! 

Drainage  assists  pulverization.  It  was  Tull's  theory 
that,  by  the  comminution,  or  minute  division,  of  soils 
alone,  without  the  application  of  any  manures,  their  fer- 
tility might  be  permanently  maintained  ;  and  he  so  far 
supported  this  theory  as,  by  repeated  plowings,  to  pro- 
duce twelve  successive  crops  of  wheat  on  the  same  land, 
without  manure.  The  theory  has  received  support  from 
the  known  fact,  that  most  soils  are  benefitted  by  Summer 
fallowing.  The  experiments  instituted  for  the  purpose  of 
establishing  this  theory,  although  they  disproved  it, 
showed  the  great  value  of  thorough  pulverization.  It  is 
manifest  that  a  wet  soil  can  never  be  pulverized.  Plowing 
clayey,  or  even  loamy  soil,  when  wet,  tends  rather  to  press 
it  together,  and  render  it  less  pervious  to  air  and  water. 

The  first  effect  of  under-draining  is  to  dry  the  surface- 
soil,  to  draw  out  all  the  water  that  will  run  out  of  it,  so 
that,  in  early  Spring,  or  in  Autumn,  it  may  be  worked 
with  the  plow  as  advantageously  as  undrained  lands  in 
mid-Summer. 

Striking  illustrations  of  the  benefits  of  thorough  pul- 
verization will  be  found  in  the  excellent  remarks  of  Dr. 
Madden,  given  in  a  subsequent  chapter. 


EFFECTS    OF    DRAINAGE    ON    SOILS.  261 

Drainage  prevents  surface-washing.  All  land  which  ia 
not  level,  and  is  not  in  grass,  is  liable  to  great  loss  by 
heavy  rains  in  Spring  and  Autumn.  If  the  land  is  already 
tilled  with  water,  or  has  not  sufficient  drainage,  the  rain 
cannot  pass  directly  downward,  but  runs  away  upon  the 
surface,  carrying  with  it  much  of  the  soil,  and  washing 
out  of  what  remains,  of  the  valuable  elements  of  fertility 
which  have  been  applied  with  such  expense.  If  the  land 
be  properly  drained,  the  water  falling  from  the  clouds  is 
at  once  absorbed,  and  passes  downwards,  saturating  the 
soil  in  its  descent,  and  carrying  the  soluble  substances 
with  it  to  the  roots,  and  the  surplus  water  runs  away  in 
the  artificial  channels  provided  by  the  draining  process. 
So  great  is  the  absorbent  power  of  drained  land,  that, 
afier  a  protracted  drought,  all  the  water  of  a  heavy  rain- 
storm will  be  drunk  up  and  held  by  the  soil,  so  that,  for  a 
day  or  two,  none  will  find  its  way  to  the  drains,  nor  will 
it  run  upon  the  surface. 

Drainage  lengthens  the  season  for  labor  and  vegetation. 
In  the  colder  latitudes  of  our  country,  where  a  long  Win- 
ter is  succeeded  by  a  torrid  Summer,  with  very  little  cere- 
mony by  way  of  an  intervening  Spring,  farmers  have  need 
of  all  their  energy  to  get  their  seed  seasonably  into  the 
ground.  Snow  often  covers  the  fields  in  New  England 
into  April ;  and  the  ground  is  so  saturated  with  water,  that 
the  land  designed  for  corn  and  potatoes,  frequently  can- 
not be  plowed  till  late  in  May.  The  manure  is  to  be 
hauled  from  the  cellar  or  yard,  over  land  lifted  and.  soft- 
ened by  frost,  and  all  the  processes  of  preparing  and  plant- 
ing, are  necessarily  hurried  and  imperfect.  In  the  Annual 
Hq  ort  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Board  of  Agriculture,  of 
the  State  of  Maine,  for  1856,  a  good  illustration  of  this 
idea  is  given  :  "  Mr.  B.  F.  bourse,  of  Orrington,  plowed 
arid  planted  with  corn  a  piece  of  his  drained  and  subsoiled 
*and,  in  a  drizzling  rain,  after  a  storm  of  two  days.  The 


262  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

corn  came  up  and  grew  well ;  yet  this  was  a  clayey 
form  erly  as  wet  as  the  adjoining  grass-field,  upon  which 
oxen  and  carts  could  not  pass,  on  the  day  of  this  planting, 
without  cutting  through  the  turf  and  miring  deeply.  The 
nearest  neighbor  said,  if  he  had  planted  that  day,  it  must 
have  been  from  a  raft."  Probably  two  weeks  woul  1  be 
gained  in  New  England,  in  Spring,  in  which  to  prepare 
for  planting,  by  thorough-drainage,  a  gain,  which  no  one 
can  appreciate  but  a  New  England  man,  who  has  been 
obliged  often  to  plow  his  land  when  too  wet,  to  cut  it 
up  and  overwork  his  team,  in  hauling  on  his  manure  over 
soft  ground,  and  finally  to  plant  as  late  as  the  6th  of  June, 
or  leave  his  manure  to  waste,  and  lose  the  use  of  his  field 
till  another  season  ;  and  all  because  of  a  surplus  of  cold 
water. 

Mr.  Yeomans,  of  New  York,  in  a  published  statement 
of  his  experience  in  draining,  says,  that  on  his  drained 
lands,  "  the  ground  becomes  almost  as  dry  in  two  or  three 
days  after  the  frost  comes  out  in  Spring,  or  after  a  heavy 
rain,  as  it  would  do  in  as  many  weeks,  before  draining." 
But  the  gain  of  time  for  labor  is  not  all.  We  gain  time 
also  for  vegetation,  by  thorough-drainage.  Ten  days,  fre- 
quently, in  New  England,  may  be  the  security  of  our 
corn-crop  against  frost.  In  less  than  that  time,  a  whole 
field  passes  from  the  milky  stage,  when  a  slight  frost 
would  ruin  it,  to  the  glazed  stage,  when  it  is  safe  from 
cold  ;  and  twice  ten  days  of  warm  season  are  added  by 
this  removal  of  surplus  water. 

Drainage  prevents  freezing  out.  Mr.  John  Johnston,  of 
Seneca  County,  New  York,  in  1851,  had  already  made 
sixteen  miles  of  tile  drains.  He  had  been  experimenting 
with  tiles  from  1835,  and  had,  on  four  acres  of  his  drained 
clayey  land,  raised  the  largest  crop  of  Indian  corn  ever 
produced  in  that  county — eighty-three  bushels  of  shelled 
corn  to  the  acre. 


EFFECT8   OF   DRAINAGE   ON    SOILS.  263 

He  states,  that  on  this  clayey  soil,  when  laid  down  to  grass, 
"  not  one  square  foot  of  the  clover  froze  out."  Again  he 
says,  "  Heretofore,  many  acres  of  wheat  were  lost  on  the 
upland  by  freezing  out,  and  none  would  grow  on  the  low- 
lands. Now  there  is  no  loss  from  that  cause." 

The  growing  of  Winter  wheat  has  been  entirely  aban- 
doned in  some  localities  on  account  of  freezing  out,  or 
Winter-killing ;  and  one  of  the  worst  obstacles  in  the  way 
of  getting  our  lands  into  grass,  and  keeping  them  so,  is 
this  very  difficulty  of  freezing  out.  The  operation  seems 
to  be  merely  this  :  The  soil  is  pulverized  only  to  the  depth 
of  the  plow,  some  six  or  eight  inches.  Below  this  is  a 
stratum  of  clay,  nearly  impervious  to  water.  The  Au- 
tumn rains  saturate  the  surface  soil,  which  absorbs  water 
like  a  sponge.  The  ground  is  suddenly  frozen  ;  the  water 
contained  in  it  crystallizes  into  ice ;  and  the  soil  is  thrown 
up  into  spicules,  or  honey-combs ;  and  the  poor  clover 
roots,  or  wheat  plants,  are  drawn  from  their  beds,  and,  by 
a  few  repetitions  of  the  process,  left  dead  on  the  field  in 
Spring.  Draining,  followed  by  subsoiling,  lets  down  the 
falling  water  at  once  through  the  soil,  leaving  the  root  bed 
of  the  plants  so  free  from  moisture,  that  the  earth  is  not 
"  heaved,"  as  the  term  is,  and  the  plants  retain  their  na- 
tural position,  and  awaken  refreshed  in  the  Spring  by  their 
Winter's  repose. 

There  are  no  open  ditches  on  under-drained  land.  An 
open  ditch  in  a  tillage  or  mowing-field,  is  an  abomi- 
nation. It  compels  us,  in  plowing,  to  stop,  perhaps 
midway  in  our  field  ;  to  make  short  lands;  to  leave  head- 
lands inconvenient  to  cultivate ;  and  so  to  waste  our  time 
and  strength  in  turning  the  team,  and  treading  up  the 
ground,  instead  of  profitably  employing  it  in  drawing  a 
long  and  handsome  furrow  the  whole  length  of  the  field, 
as  we  might  do  were  there  no  ditch.  Open  ditches,  as 
usually  made,  obstruct  the  movement  of  our  teams  us 


264  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

much  as  fences,  and  a  farm  cut  into  squares  by  ditches, 
is  nearly  as  objectionable  as  a  farm  fenced  off  into  half 
or  quarter-acre  fields. 

In  haying,  we  have  the  same  inconvenience.  We  must 
turn  the  mowing-machine  and  horse-rake  at  the  ditch, 
arid  finish  by  hand-labor,  the  work  on  its  banks ;  we  must 
construct  bridges  at  frequent  intervals,  and  then  go  out 
of  our  way  to  cross  them  with  loads,  cutting  up  the  smooth 
fields  with  wheels  and  the  feet  of  animals.  Or,  what  is  a 
familiar  scene,  when  a  shower  is  coming  up,  and  the  load 
is  ready,  Patrick  concludes  to  drive  straight  to  the  barn, 
across  the  ditch,  and  gets  his  team  mired,  upsets  his  load, 
and  perhaps  breaks  the  leg  of  an  animal,  besides  swearing 
more  than  half  a  mile  of  hard  ditching  will  expiate.  Such 
accidents  are  a  great  temptation  to  profanity,  and  under- 
draining  might  properly  be  reckoned  a  moral  agent,  to 
counteract  such  traps  and  pitfalls  of  the  great  adversary. 

A  moment's  thought  will  satisfy  any  farmer  who  has 
the  means,  that  true  economy  dictates  a  liberal  expenditure 
of  labor,  at  once,  to  obviate  these  difficulties,  rather  than 
be  subject  for  a  lifetime  to  the  constant  petty  annoyances 
which  have  been  named. 

Open  ditches,  even  when  formed  so  skillfully  that  they 
may  be  conveniently  crossed,  or  water-furrows  which 
remain  where  land  is  laid  into  ridges  by  back-furrowing, 
as  much  of  our  flat  land  must  be,  if  not  under-drained, 
are  serious  obstructions,  at  the  best. 

They  render  the  soil  unequal  in  depth,  taking  it  from 
one  point  where  it  is  wanted,  and  heaping  it  upon  another 
where  it  is  not  wanted,  thus  giving  the  crops  an  uneven 
growth.  They  render  the  soil  also  unequal  in  respect  to 
moisture,  because  the  back  or  top  of  the  ridge  must  always 
be  drier  than  the  furrow. 

Thorough-drained  land  may  be  laid  perfectly  flat,  giving 
us,  thus,  the  control  of  the  whole  field,  to  divide  and  cul- 


EFFECTS    OF   DRAINAGE    ON    SOILS.  265 

tivate  according  to  convenience,  and  making  it  of  uniform 
texture  and  temperature. 

Attempts  have  been  made,  to  estimate  the  saving  in  the 
number  of  horses  and  men  by  drainage,  and  it  is  thought 
to  be  a  reasonable  calculation  to  fix  it  at  one  in  four,  or 
twenty-five  per  cent.  It  probably  will  strike  any  farmer 
as  a  fair  estimate,  that,  on  land  which  needs  drainage,  it 
will  require  four  horses  and  four  men  to  perform  the  same 
amount  of  cultivation,  that  three  men  and  three  horses 
may  perform  on  the  same  land  well  drained. 

Drained  land  will  not  require  re-planting.  There  is 
hardly  a  farmer  in  New  England,  who  does  not,  each 
Spring,  find  himself  compelled  to  re-plant  some  portion 
of  his  crop.  He  is  obliged  to  hurry  his  seed  into 
the  ground,  at  the  earliest  day,  because  our  season  for 
planting  is  short  at  the  best.  If,  after  this,  a  long  cold 
storm  comes,  on  wet  land,  the  seed  rots  in  the  ground, 
and  he  must  plant  again,  often  too  late,  incurring  thus 
the  loss  of  the  seed,  the  labor  of  twice  doing  the  same 
work,  the  interruption  of  his  regular  plan  of  business,  and 
often  the  partial  failure  of  his  crop. 

Upon  thorough-drained  land,  this  cost  and  labor  could 
rarely  be  experienced,  because  nothing  short  of  a  small 
deluge  could  saturate  well  drained  land,  so  as  to  cause  the 
seed  to  fail,  if  sowed  or  planted  with  ordinary  care  and 
prudence,  as  to  the  season. 

Drained  land  is  lighter  to  work.  It  is  often  difficult  to 
find  a  day  in  the  year,  when  a  wet  piece  of  land  is  in 
suitable  condition  to  plow.  Usually,  such  tracts  are 
unequal,  some  parts  being  much  wetter  than  others, 
because  the  water  settles  into  the  low  places.  In  such 
fields,  we  now  drive  our  team  knee  deep  into  soft  mud, 
and  find  a  stream  of  water  following  us  in  the  furrow,  and 
now  we  rise  upon  a  knoll,  baked  hard,  and  sun-cracked ; 
and  one  half  the  surface  when  finished  is  shining  with  the 
12 


266  FABM   DRAINAGE. 

plastered  mud,  ready  to  dry  into  the  consistency  of  bricks, 
while  the  other  is  already  in  hard  dry  lumps,  like  paving 
stones,  and  about  as  easily  pulverized. 

This  is  hard  work  for  the  team  and  men,  hard  in  the 
plowing,  and  hard  through  the  whole  rotation.  The  same 
field,  well  drained,  is  friable  and  porous,  and  uniform  in 
texture.  It  may  be  well  plowed  and  readily  pulverized, 
if  taken  in  hand  at  any  reasonable  season. 

Land  which  has  been  puddled  by  the  tread  of  cattle, 
or  by  wheels,  acquires  a  peculiar  consistency,  and  a 
singular  capacity  to  hold  water.  Certain  clays  are  wet 
and  beaten  up  into  this  consistency,  to  form  the  bottoms 
of  ponds,  and  to  tighten  dams  and  reservoirs.  A  soil  thus 
puddled,  requires  careful  treatment  to  again  render  it 
permeable  to  water,  and  fit  for  cultivation.  This  puddling 
process  is  constantly  going  on,  under  the  feet  of  cattle, 
under  the  plow  and  the  cart-wheels,  wherever  land 
containing  clay  is  worked  upon  in  a  wet  state.  Thus,  by 
performing  a  day's  work  on  wet  land,  we  often  render 
necessary  as  much  additional  labor  as  we  perform,  to 
cure  the  evil  we  have  done. 

We  may  haul  loads  without  injury  on  drained  land. 
On  many  farms,  it  is  difficult  to  select  a  season  for  hauling 
out  manure,  or  carting  stones  from  place  to  place,  when 
great  injury  is  not  done  to  some  part  of  the  land  by  the 
operation.  Many  farmers  haul  out  their  manure  in  Winter, 
to  avoid  cutting  up  their  farms  ;  admitting  that  the  manure 
is  wasted  somewhat  by  the  exposure,  but,  on  the  whole, 
choosing  this  loss  as  the  lesser  evil.  In  spreading  manure 
in  Spring,  we  are  often  obliged  to  carry  half  loads,  because 
the  land  is  soft,  not  only  to  spare  our  beasts,  but  also  to 
spare  our  land  the  injury  by  treading  it.  Drained  land 
is  comparatively  solid,  especially  in  Spring,  and  will  bear 
up  heavy  loads  with  little  injury. 


EFFECTS   OF   DRAINAGE    ON    SOILS.  267 

Drained  land  is  least  injured  by  cattle  in  feeding. 
"Whether  it  is  good  husbandry  to  feed  our  mowing  fields 
at  any  time,  is  a  question  upon  which  farmers  have  a  right 
to  differ.  Without  discussing  the  question,  it  is  enough 
for  our  purpose,  that  most  farmers  feed  their  fields  late  in 
the  Autumn.  Whether  we  approve  it,  or  not,  when  the 
pastures  are  bare  and  burnt  up,  and  the  second  crop  in  the 
home-field  is  so  rich  and  tempting,  and  the  women  are 
complaining  that  the  cows  give  no  milk,  we  usually  bow 
to  the  necessity  of  the  time,  and  "  turn  in "  the  cows. 
The  great  injury  of  "  Fall-feeding  "  is  not  usually  so  much 
the  loss  of  the  grass-covering  from  the  field,  as  the  poach- 
ing of  the  soil  and  destruction  of  the  roots  by  treading. 
A  hard  upland  field  is  much  less  injured  by  feeding, 
than  a  low  meadow,  and  the  latter  less  in  a  dry  than  a 
wet  season.  By  drainage,  the  surplus  water  is  taken  from 
the  field.  None  can  stand  upon  its  surface  for  a  day  after 
the  rain  ceases.  The  soil  is  compact,  and  the  hoofs  of  cat- 
tle make  little  impression  upon  it,  and  the  second  or  third 
crop  may  be  fed  off,  with  comparatively  little  damage. 

Weeds  are  easily  destroyed  on  drained  land.  If  a 
weed  be  dug  or  pulled  up  from  land  that  is  wet  and  sticky, 
it  is  likely  to  strike  root  and  grow  again,  because 
earth  adheres  to  its  roots  ;  whereas,  a  stroke  of  the  hoe  en- 
tirely separates  the  weeds  in  friable  soil  from  the  earth, 
and  they  die  at  once.  Every  farmer  knows  the  different 
effect  of  hoeing,  or  of  cultivating  with  the  horse-hoe  or 
harrow,  in  a  rain  storm  and  in  dry  weather.  In  one  case, 
the  weeds  are  rather  refreshed  by  the  stirring,  and,  in  the 
other,  they  are  destroyed.  The  difference  between  the 
surface  of  drained  land  and  water-soaked  land  is  much 
the  same  as  that  between  land  in  dry  weather  under  good 
cultivation,  and  land  just  saturated  by  rain. 

Again,  there  are  many  noxious  weeds,  such  as  wild 
grasses,  which  thrive  only  on  wet  land,  and  which  are 


268  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

difficult  to  exterminate,  and  which  give  us  no  trouble  after 
the  land  is  lightened  and  sweetened  by  drainage.  Among 
the  effects  of  drainage,  mainly  of  a  chemical  nature,  on  the 
soil,  are  the  following  : 

Drainage  promotes  absorption  of  fertilizing  substances 
from  the  air.  The  atmosphere  bears  upon  its  bosom,  not 
only  the  oxygen  essential  to  the  vitality  of  plants,  not  only 
water  in  the  form  of  vapor,  to  quench  their  thirst  in 
Summer  droughts,  but  also  various  substances,  which  rise 
in  exhalations  from  the  sea,  from  decomposing  animals  and 
vegetables,  from  the  breathing  of  all  living  creatures, 
from  combustion,  and  a  thousand  other  causes.  These 
would  be  sufficient  to  corrupt  the  very  air,  and  render  it 
unfit  for  respiration,  did  not  Nature,  with  her  wondrous 
laws  of  compensation,  provide  for  its  purification.  It  has 
already  been  stated,  how  the  atmosphere  returns  to  the 
hills,  in  clouds  and  vapor,  condensed  at  last  to  rain,  all 
the  water  which  the  rivers  carry  to  the  sea ;  and  how  the 
well-drained  soil  derives  moisture,  in  severest  time  of  need, 
from  its  contact  with  the  vapor-loaded  air.  But  the  rain 
and  dew  return  not  their  waters  to  the  earth  without  trea- 
Bures  of  fertility.  Ammonia,  which  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  substances  found  in  farm-yard  manures,  and 
which  is  a  constant  result  of  decomposition,  is  absorbed  in 
almost  incredible  quantities  by  water.  About  780  times 
its  own  bulk  of  ammonia  is  readily  absorbed  by  water  at 
the  common  temperature  and  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  ; 
and,  freighted  thus  with  treasures  for  the  fields,  the  mois- 
ture of  the  atmosphere  descends  upon  the  earth.  The 
rain  cleanses  the  air  of  its  impurities,  and  conveys  them 
to  the  plants.  The  vapors  of  the  marshes,  and  of  the  ex- 
posed manure  heaps  of  the  thriftless  farmer,  are  gently 
wafted  to  the  well-drained  fields  of  his  neighbor,  and  there, 
amidst  the  roots  of  the  well-tilled  crops,  deposit,  at  the 
same  time,  their  moisture  and  fertilizing  wealth. 


EFFECTS    OF   DRAINAGE    ON    SOILS. 

Of  the  wonderful  power  of  the  soil  to  absorb  moisture, 
both  from  the  heavens  above  and  the  earth  beneath — by 
the  deposition  of  dew,  as  well  as  by  attraction-— we  shall 
treat  more  fully  in  another  chapter.  It  will  be  found  to 
be  intimately  connected  with  the  present  topic. 

Thorough  drainage  supplies  air  to  the  roots.  Plants,  if 
they  do  not  breathe  like  animals,  require  for  their  life 
almost  the  same  constant  supply  of  air.  "All  plants," 
says  Liebig,  "  die  in  soils  and  water  destitute  of  oxygen  ; 
absence  of  air  acts  exactly  in  the  same  manner  as  an  ex- 
cess of  carbonic  acid.  Stagnant  water  on  a  marshy  soil 
excludes  air,  but  a  renewal  of  water  has  the  same  effect 
as  a  renewal  of  air,  because  water  contains  it  in  solution. 
When  the  water  is  withdrawn  from  a  marsh,  free  access  is 
given  to  the  air,  and  the  marsh  is  changed  into  a  fruitful 
meadow."  Animal  and  vegetable  matter  do  not  decay, 
or  decompose,  so  as  to  furnish  food  for  plants,  unless  freely 
supplied  with  oxygen,  which  they  must  obtain  from 
air.  A  slight  quantity  of  air,  however,  is  sufficient  for 
putrefaction,  which  is  a  powerful  deoxydizing  process  that 
extracts  oxygen  even  from  the  roots  of  plants. 

We  are  accustomed  to  think  of  the  earth  as  a  compact 
body  of  matter,  vast  and  inert;  subject,  indeed,  to  be  up- 
heaved and  rent  by  volcanoes  and  earthquakes,  but  as 
quite  insensible  to  slight  influences  which  operate  upon 
living  beings  and  upon  vegetation.  This,  however,  is  a 
great  mistake  ;  and  it  may  be  interesting  to  refer  to  one  or 
two  facts,  which  illustrate  the  wonderful  effect  of  changes 
of  the  atmosphere  upon  the  soil,  and  upon  the  subterra- 
nean currents  of  the  earth.  The  following  is  frc  in  remarks 
by  Mr.  Denton,  in  a  public  address : 

:c  But.  as  a  proof  of  the  sensibility  of  a  soil  drained  four  feet  deep,  to 
atmospheric  changes,  1  may  mention,  that  my  attention  has  been,  on 
more  than  one  occasion,  called  to  the  circumstance  that  drains  have 
been  observed  to  run,  after  a  discontinuance  of  that  duty,  without  any 


270  FARM   DRAINAGE, 

fall  of  rain  on  the  surface  of  the  drained  land  •  and,  upon  reference  to 
the  barometer,  it  has  been  found  that  the  quicksilver  has  fallen  when- 
ever this  has  occurred.  Mr.  George  Beaumont,  jun.,  who  first  afforded 
tangible  evidence  of  this  extraordinary  circumstance,  has  permitted  me 
to  read  the  following  extracts  of  his  letter  : 

"  '  I  can  verify  the  case  of  the  drains  running  without  rain,  during  a 
falling  barometer,  beyond  all  doubt. 

11  i  The  case  I  named  to  you  last  year  of  the  barometer  falling  four 
days  consecutively,  and  with  rapidity,  was  a  peculiarly  favorable  time 
for  noticing  it,  as  it  occurred  in  a  dry  time,  and  the  drains  could  be  seen 
distinctly.  My  man,  on  being  questioned  and  cautioned  by  me  not  to 
exaggerate,  has  declared  the  actual  stream  of  water  issuing  from  one 
particular  drain  to  be  as  thick  as  a  three-eighth-inch  wire.  All  the 
drains  ran — they  did  more  than  drop — and  ditches,  which  were  previ- 
ously dry,  became  quite  wet,  with  a  perceptible  stream  of  water  •  this 
gradually  ceased  with  the  change  in  the  density  of  the  atmosphere,  as 
shown  by  the  barometer. 

"  •  During  last  harvest,  1855,  the  men  were  cutting  wheat,  and  on 
getting  near  to  a  drain  outlet,  the  ditch  from  the  outlet  downwards 
was  observed  to  be  wet,  and  the  drain  was  dripping.  No  rain  fell  in 
sufficient  quantity  to  enter  the  ground.  The  men  drank  of  the  water 
while  they  were  cutting  the  wheat.  A  few  days  after,  it  was  dry  again. 
I  have  seen  and  noticed  this  phenomenon  myself7 

u  A  correspondent  of  the  Agricultural  Gazette  has  stated,  that  Pro- 
fessor Brocklesby,  of  Hartford,  in  America,  had  observed  the  same  phen- 
omena, in  the  case  of  two  springs  in  that  country;  and  explained,  that 
the  cause  was  '  the  diminished  atmospheric  pressure  which  exists  before 
a  rain.'  " 

Dr.  Lardner  states  many  facts  which  support  the  ideas 
above  suggested.  In  his  lectures  on  science,  he  says : 
"  When  storms  are  breaking  in  the  heavens,  and  some- 
times long  before  their  commencement,  and  when  their 
approach  has  not  yet  been  manifested  by  any  appearances 
in  the  firmament,  phenomena  are  observed,  apparently 
sympathetic,  proceeding  from  the  deep  recesses  of  the 
earth,  and  exhibited  under  very  various  forms  at  its  sur- 
face." Dr.  Lardner  cites  many  instances  of  fountains 
which,  when  a  storm  is  approaching,  burst  forth  with  a 
violent  flow  of  water,  before  any  rain  has  fallen. 


EFFECTS    OF   DRAINAGE   ON   SOILS.  271 

The  cases  named  by  Prof.  Brocklesby,  referred  to  by 
Mr.  Denton,  are  those  of  a  spring  in  Rutland,  Yennorit, 
and  a  brook  in  Concord,  Massachusetts.  Prof.  Brocklesby 
states,  as  the  result  of  his  personal  observation,  that  the 
spring  referred  to,  supplies  an  aqueduct;  that,  in  several 
instances,  when  the  spring  had  become  so  low,  in  a  time 
of  drought,  that  no  water  ran  in  the  aqueduct,  it  suddenly 
rose  so  as  to  fill  the  pipes,  and  furnish  a  supply  of  water, 
before  any  rain  had  fallen  in  the  neighborhood.  This  oc- 
currence, he  says,  was  familiar  to  the  occupants  of  the 
premises,  and  they  expected  rain  in  a  few  days  after  this 
mysterious  flow  of  water ;  which  expectations  were  usually, 
if  not  always,  realized. 

The  other  instance  is  that  of  a  brook  in  Concord,  Mass., 
called  Dodge's  brook,  which  Prof.  B.  says,  he  was  informed, 
commenced  frequently  to  rise  very  perceptibly  before  z» 
drop  of  rain  had  fallen. 

"We  have  inquired  of  our  friends  in  Concord  about  this 
matter,  and  find  that  this  opinion  is  entertained  by  many 
of  the  people  who  live  near  this  brook,  and  it  is  probably 
well  founded,  though  we  cannot  ascertain  that  accurate 
observations  have  been  made,  so  as  to  afford  any  defi- 
nite results. 

Thorough  drainage  warms  the  soil.  It  has  been  stated, 
on  high  authority,  that  drainage  raises  the  temperature  of 
the  soil,  often  as  much  as  15°  F.  Indian  corn  vegetates  at 
about  55°.  At  45°,  the  seed  would  rot  in  the  ground, 
without  vegetating.  The  writer,  however,  has  seen  rye 
sprouted  upon  ice  in  an  ice-house,  with  roots  two  inches 
long,  so  grown  to  the  ice  that  they  could  only  be  separated 
by  thawing.  Winter  rye,  no  doubt,  makes  considerable 
growth  under  snow.  Cultivated  plants,  in  general,  how- 
ever, do  not  grow  at  all,  unless  the  soil  be  raised  above 
45°.  The  sun  has  great  power  to  warm  dry  soils,  and,  it 
is  said,  will  often  raise  their  temperature  to  90°  or  100°, 


272  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

when  the  air  in  the  shade  is  only  60°  or  70°.  But  the  sun 
has  no  sjch  power  to  warm  a  wet  soil,  and  for  several 
reasons,  which  are  as  follows : 

1.  The  soil  is  rendered  cold  by  evaporation.     If  water 
cannot  pass  through  the  land  by  drainage,  either  natural 
or  artificial,  it  must  escape,  if  at  all,  at  the  surface,  by 
evaporation.     Now,  it  is  a  fact  well  known,  that  the  heat 
disappears,  or  becomes  latent,  by  the  conversion  of  water 
into  vapor.     Every  child  knows  this,  practically,  at  least, 
who,  in  Winter,  has  washed  his  hands  and  gone  out  with- 
out  drying  them.      The   same    evaporation   which   thus 
affects  the  hands,  renders  the  land  cold,  when  filled  with 
water,  every  gallon  of  which  thus  carried  off  requires,  and 
actually  carries  off,  as  much  heat  as  would  raise  five  and 
a  half  gallons  of  water  from  the  freezing  to  the  boiling 
point. 

Morton,  in  his  "  Encyclopaedia  of  Agriculture,"  esti- 
mates that  it  would  require  an  expenditure  of  nearly  1,200 
pounds  of  coal  per  day,  to  evaporate  artificially  one  half 
the  rain  which  falls  on  an  acre  during  the  year.  In  other 
words,  about  219  tons  of  coals  annually,  would  be  required 
for  every  acre  of  undrained  land,  so  as  to  allow  the  free 
use  of  the  sun's  rays  for  the  legitimate  purpose  of  growing 
and  maturing  the  crops  cultivated  upon  it.  It  will  not 
then  be  surprising  that  undrained  soils  are,  in  the  lan- 
guage of  the  farmer,  "  cold." 

2.  Heat  will  not  pass  downward  in  waterf     If,  there 
fore,  your  soil  be  saturated  with  water,  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  in  Spring,  cannot  warm  it,  and  your  plowing  and 
planting  must  be  late,  and  your  crop  a  failure.     Count 
Rurnford  tried  many  experiments  to  illustrate  the  mode 
of  the  propagation  of  heat  in  fluids,  and  his  conclusion,  it 
is  presumed,  is  now  held  to  be  the  true  theory,  that  heat 
is  transmitted  in  water  only  by  the  motion  of  the  particles 
of  water;  so  that,  if  you  could  stop  the  heated  particles 


EFFECTS   OF   DRAINAGE   ON    SOILS.  273 

from  rising,  water  could  not  be  warmed  except  where  it 
touches  the  vessel  containing  it.  Heat  applied  to  the  bot- 
tom of  a  vessel  of  wrater  warms  the  particles  in  contact 
with  the  vessel,  and  colder  particles  descend,  and  so  the 
whole  is  warmed. 

Heat,  applied  to  the  surface  of  the  water,  can  never 
warm  it,  except  so  far  as  it  is  conducted  downward  by 
some  other  medium  than  the  water  itself.  Count  Rum- 
ford  confined  cakes  of  ice  in  the  bottom  of  glass  jars,  and, 
covering  it  with  one  thickness  of  paper,  poured  boiling- 
hot  water  on  the  top  of  it,  and  there  it  remained  for 
hours  without  melting  the  ice.  The  paper  was  placed 
over  the  ice,  so  that  the  hot  water  could  not  be  poured  on 
it,  which  would  have  thawed  it  at  once.  Every  man  who 
has  poured  hot  water  into  a  frozen  pump,  hoping  to  thaw 
out  the  ice  by  this  means,  has  arrived  at  the  fact,  if  not  at 
the  theory,  that  ice  will  not  melt  by  hot  water  on  the  top 
of  it.  If,  however,  a  piece  of  lead  pipe  be  placed  in  the 
pump,  resting  on  the  ice,  and  hot  water  be  poured  through 
it,  the  ice  will  melt  at  once.  In  the  rirst  instance,  the  hot 
water  in  contact  with  the  ice  becomes  cold;  and  there  it 
remains,  because  cold  water  is  heavier  than  warm,  and 
there  it  will  remain,  though  the  top  be  boiling.  But 
when  hot  water  is  poured  through  the  pipe,  the  downward 
current  drives  away  the  cold  water,  and  brings  heated 
particles  in  succession  to  the  ice. 

Heat  is  propagated  in  water,  then,  only  by  circulation  ; 
that  is,  by  the  upward  movement  of  the  heated  particles, 
and  the  downward  movement  of  the  colder  ones  to  take 
their  place.  Anything  which  obstructs  circulation,  pre- 
vents the  passage  of  heat.  Chocolate  retains  heat  longer 
than  tea,  because  it  is  thicker,  and  the  hot  particles  can- 
not so  readily  rise  to  be  cooled  at  the  surface.  Count 
Eumford  illustrated  this  fact  satisfactorily,  by  putting 
eider-down  into  water,  which  was  found  to  obstruct  the 
12* 


274:  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

circulation,  and  to  prevent  the  rapid  heating  and  cooling 
of  it.  The  same  is  true  of  all  viscous  substances,  as  starch 
and  glue ;  and  so  of  oil.  They  retain  heat  much  longei 
than  water  or  spirits. 

In  a  soil  saturated  with  water,  or  even  in  water  thick- 
oned  with  mud,  there  could  then  be  but  little  circulation 
of  the  particles,  even  were  the  heat  applied  at  the  bottom 
instead  of  the  top.  Probably  the  soil,  though  saturated 
with  water,  does,  to  some  extent,  transmit  heat  from  one 
particle  of  earth  to  another,  but  it  must  be  but  very  slowly. 

In  the  chapter  upon  Temperature  as  affected  by  Drain- 
age, farther  illustrations  of  this  point  may  be  found. 

AERATION   BY   DRAINS. 

Among  the  advantages  of  thorough-drainage,  is  reckoned 
by  all,  the  circulation  of  air  through  the  soil.  !No  drop 
of  water  can  run  from  the  soil  into  a  drain  without  its 
place  being  supplied  by  air,  unless  there  is  more  water  to 
supply  it ;  so  that  drainage,  in  this  way,  manifestly  pro- 
motes the  permeation  of  air  through  the  soil. 

But  it  is  claimed  that  drains  may  be  made  to  promote 
circulation  of  air  in  another  way,  and  in  dry  times,  when 
no  w^ater  is  flowing  through  them,  by  connecting  them 
together  by  means  of  a  header  at  the  upper  ends,  and 
leaving  an  opening  so  that  the  air  may  pass  freely  through 
the  whole  system.  Our  friend,  Prof.  Mapes,  is  an  advo- 
cate for  this  practice,  and  certainly  the  theory  seems  well 
supported.  It  is  said  that  in  dry,  hot  weather,  when  the 
air  is  most  highly  charged  with  moisture,  currents  thus 
passing  constantly  through  the  earth,  must,  by  contact 
with  the  cooler  subsoil,  part  with  large  quantities  of 
moisture,  and  tend  to  moisten  the  soil  from  the  drains  to 
the  surface,  giving  off  also  with  the  moisture  whatever  of 
fertilizing  elements  the  air  may  bear  with  it. 

This  point  has  not  escaped  the  notice  of  English  drain- 


EFFECTS    OF   DRAINAGE   ON   SOILS.  275 

ers.  Mr.  J.  H.  Charnock,  an  assistant  commissioner 
under  the  Drainage  act,  in  1843,  read  a  paper  in  favor  of 
this  practice,  but  in  1849  he  published  a  second  article  in 
which  he  suggests  doubts  of  the  advantages  of  such 
arrangements,  and  says  he  has  discontinued  their  applica- 
tion. He  says  they  add  to  the  cost  of  the  work,  and  tend 
to  the  decay  of  the  pipes,  and  to  promote  the  growth  into 
the  pipes,  of  any  roots  that  may  approach  them. 

Mr.  Parkes,  in  a  published  article  in  1846,  speaks  of  this 
idea,  but  passes  it  by  as  of  very  little  importance.  Mr. 
Denton  quotes  the  authority  of  some  of  his  correspondents 
strongly  in  favor  of  this  theory.  After  trying  some 
experiments  himself  upon  clay  soil,  he  admits  the  advan- 
tages of  such  an  arrangement  for  such  soil,  in  the  follow- 
ing not  very  enthusiastic  terms : 

"  It  will  be  readily  understood  that  as  clay  will  always 
contract  rapidly  under  the  influence  of  a  draught  of  air,  in 
consequence  of  the  rapid  evaporation  of  moisture  from  its 
surface,  one  of  the  benefits  of  draining  is  thus  very  cheaply- 
acquired  ;  and  for  the  denser  clays  it  may  possibly  be  a 
desirable  thing  to  do,  but  in  the  porous  soils  it  would 
appear  that  no  advantage  is  gained  by  it." 

Yet,  notwithstanding  this  summary  disposition  of  the 
question  in  England,  it  is  by  no  means  clear,  that  in  the 
tropical  heat  of  American  summers,  when  the  difference 
between  the  temperature  of  the  air  and  the  subsoil  is  so 
much  greater  than  it  can  ever  be  in  England,  and  when 
we  suffer  from  severer  droughts  than  are  common  there, 
we  may  not  find  substantial  practical  advantage  from  the 
passage  of  these  air  currents  through  the  soil. 

We  are  not  aware  of  experiments  in  America,  accurate 
enough  to  be  quoted  as  authority  on  the  subject. 


276  FARM   DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 

DRAINAGE   ADAPTS    THE    SOIL   TO    GERMINATION   AND 
VEGETATION. 

Process  of  Germination. — Two  Classes  of  Pores  in  Soils,  illustrated  by 
Cuts. — Too  much  Water  excludes  Air,  reduces  Temperature. — How  much 
Air  the  Soil  Contains. — Drainage  Improves  the  Quality  of  Crops. — 
Drainage  prevents  Drought. — Drained  Soils  hold  most  Water. — Allow 
Roots  to  go  Deep. — Various  Facts. 

No  apology  will  be  necessary  for  the  long  extract  which 
we  are  about  to  give,  to  any  person  who  will  read  it  with 
attention.  It  is  from  a  lecture  on  Agricultural  Science, 
by  Dr.  Madden,  and  we  confess  ourselves  incompetent 
to  condense  or  improve  the  language  of  the  learned 
author. 

We  think  we  are  safe  in  saying  that  it  has  never  been 
before  published  in  America : 

"  The  first  thing  which  occurs  after  the  sowing  of  the  seed  is,  of 
course,  germination;  and  before  we  examine  how  this  process  may  be 
influenced  by  the  condition  of  the  soil,  we  must  necessarily  obtain  some 
correct  idea  of  the  process  itself.  The  most  careful  examination  has 
proved  that  the  process  of  germination  consists  essentially  of  various 
chemical  changes,  which  require  for  their  development  the  presence  of 
air,  moisture,  and  a  certain  degree  of  warmth.  Now  it  is  obviously 
unnecessary  for  our  present  purpose  that  we  should  have  the  least  idea 
of  the  nature  of  these  processes  :  all  we  require  to  do,  is  to  ascertain 
the  conditions  under  which  they  take  place  ;  having  detected  these,  we 
know  at  once  what  is  required  to  make  a  seed  grow.  These,  we  have 
seen,  are  air,  moisture,  and  a  certain  degree  of  warmth  :  and  it  con- 
sequently results,  that  wherever  a  seed  is  placed  in  these  circumstances, 
germination  will  take  place.  Viewing  matters  in  this  light,  it  appear! 


GERMINATION. 


277 


that  soil  does  not  act  chemically  in  the  process  of  germination ;  that  its 
sole  action  is  confined  to  its  being  the  vehicle,  by  means  of  which  a 
supply  of  air  and  moisture  and  warmth  can  be  continually  kept  up. 
With  this  simple  statement  in  view,  we  are  quite  prepared  to  consider 
the  various  conditions  of  soil,  for  the  purpose  of  determining  how  far 
these  will  influence  the  future  prospects  of  the  crop,  and  we  shall 
accordingly  at  once  proceed  to  examine  carefully  into  the  mechanical 
relations  of  the  soil.  This  we  propose  doing  by  the  aid  of  figures. 
Soil  examined  mechanically,  is  found  to  consist  entirely  of  particles  of 
all  shapes  and  sizes,  from  stones  and  pebbles,  down  to  the  finest  powder  ; 
and,  on  account  of  their  extreme  irregularity  of  shape,  they  cannot  lie 
so  close  to  one  another  as  to  prevent  there  being  passages  between 
them,  owing  to  which  circumstance  soil  in  the  mass  is  always  more  or 
less  porous.  If,  however,  we  proceed  to  examine  one  of  the  smallest 
particles  of  which  soil  is  made  up,  we  shall  find  that  even  this  is  not 
always  solid,  but  is  much  more  frequently  porous,  like  soil  in  the  mass. 
A  considerable  proportion  of  this  finely-divided  part  of  soil,  the  impal- 
pable matter  as  it  is  generally  called,  is  found,  by  the  aid  of  the  micros- 
cope, to  consist  of  broken-down  vegetable  tissue,  so  that  when  a  small 
portion  of  the  finest  dust  from  a  garden  or  field  i-s  placed  under  the 
microscope,  we  have  exhibited  to  us  particles  of  every  variety  of  shape 
and  structure,  of  which  a  certain  part  is  evidently  of  vegetable  origin. 


Fig.  91.  -  Fig.  92. 

In  these  figures  I  have  given  a  very  rude  representation  of  these 
particles ;  and  I  must  beg  you  particularly  to  remember  that  they  are 
not  meant  to  represent  by  any  means  accurately  what  the  microscope 
exhibits,  but  are  only  designed  to  serve  as  a  plan  by  which  to  illustrate 
the  mechanical  properties  of  the  soil.  On  referring  to  Fig.  91,  we  per- 
ceive that  there  are  two  distinct  classes  of  pores ;  first,  the  large  ones, 
which  exist  between  the  particles  of  soil,  and  second,  the  very  minute 
ones,  which  occur  in  the  particles  themselves  ;  and  you  will  at  the 
same  time  notice,  that  whereas  all  the  larger  pores — those  between  the 


278 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


particles  of  soil — communicate  most  freely  with  each  other,  so  that 
they  form  canals,  the  small  pores,  however  freely  they  may  commu- 
nicate with  one  another  in  the  interior  of  the  particle  in  which  they 
occur,  have  no  direct  connection  with  the  pores  of  the  'surrounding 
particles.  Let  us  now,  therefore,  trace  the  effect  of  this  arrangement. 
In  Fig.  91,  we  perceive  that  these  canals  and  pores  are  all  empty,  the 
soil  being  perfectly  dry ;  and  the  canals  communicating  freely  at  the 
surface  with  the  surrounding  atmosphere,  the  whole  will  of  course  be 
filled  with  air.  If  in  this  condition,  a  seed  be  placed  in  the  soil,  as  at 
a,  you  at  once  perceive  that  it  is  freely  supplied  with  air,  but  there  is 
no  moisture  j  therefore,  when  soil  is  perfectly  dry,  a  Beed  cannot  grow. 
"  Let  us  turn  our  attention  now  to  Fig.  92.  Here  we  perceive  that 
both  the  pores  and  canals  are  no  longer  represented  white,  but  black, 
this  color  being  used  to  indicate  water  :  in  this  instance,  therefore, 
water  has  taken  the  place  of  air.  or,  in  other  words,  the  soil  is  very  wet. 
If  we  observe  our  seed  a  now,  we  find  it  abundantly  supplied  with 
water,  but  no  air.  Here  again,  therefore,  germination  cannot  take 
place.  It  may  be  well  to  state  here,  that  this  can  never  occur  exactly 
in  nature,  because  water  having  the  power  of  dissolving  air  to  a  certain 
extent,  the  seed  a  in  Fig.  92  is,  in  fact,  supplied  with  a  certain  amount 
of  this  necessary  substance  ;  and.  owing  to  this,  germination  does  take 
place,  although  by  no  means  under  such  advantageous  circumstances 
as  it  would  were  the  soil  in  a  better  condition. 


Fig.  93.  Fig.  94. 

"  We  pass  on  now  to  Fig.  93.  Here  we  find  a  different  state  of 
matters.  The  canals  are  open  and  freely  supplied  with  air,  while  the 
pores  are  filled  with  water ;  and  consequently  you  perceive  that,  while 
the  seed  a  has  quite  enough  of  air  from  the  canals,  it  can  never  be 
without  moisture,  as  every  particle  of  soil  which  touches  it,  is  well 
supplied  with  this  necessary  ingredient.  This,  then,  is  the  proper  con-* 
dition  of  soil  for  germination,  and  in  fact  for  every  period  of  the  plant's 
development ;  and  this  condition  occurs  when  soil  is  moist  but  not  wet 


GERMINATION.  279 

—that  is  to  say,  when  it  has  the  color  and  appearance  of  being  well 
watered,  but  when  it  is  still  capable  of  being  crumbled  to  pieces  by 
the  hands,  without  any  of  its  particles  adhering  together  in  the  familiar 
form  of  mud. 

"  Turning  our  eyes  to  Fig.  94,  we  observe  still  another  condition  of 
soil.  In  this  instance,  as  far  as  water  is  concerned,  the  soil  is  in  its 
healthy  condition— it  is  moist,  but  not  wet,  the  pores  alone  being  filled 
with  water.  But  wrhere  are  the  canals  ?  We  see  them  in  a  few 
places,  but  in  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  soil  none  are  to  be  per- 
ceived ;  this  is  owing  to  the  particles  of  soil  having  adhered  together, 
and  thus  so  far  obliterated  the  interstitial  canals,  that  they  appear  only 
like  pores.  This  is  the  state  of  matters  in  every  clod  of  earth,  b  ;  and 
you  will  at  once  perceive,  on  comparing  it  with  c,  which  represents  a 
stone,  that  these  two  differ  only  in  possessing  a  few  pores,  which  latter, 
while  they  may  form  a  reservoir  for  moisture,  can  never  act  as  vehicles 
for  the  food  of  plants,  as  the  roots  are  not  capable  of  extending  their 
fibres  into  the  interior  of  a  clod,  but  are  at  all  times  confined  to  the 
interstitial  canals. 

"  With  these  four  conditions  before  us,  let  us  endeavor  to  apply  them 
practically  to  ascertain  when  they  occur  in  our  fields,  and  how  those 
which  are  injurious  may  be  obviated. 

"  The  first  of  them,  we  perceive,  is  a  state  of  too  great  dryness,  a  very 
rare  condition,  in  this  climate  at  least  j  in  fact,  the  only  case  in  which 
it  is  likely  to  occur  is  in  very  coarse  sands,  where  the  soil,  being  chiefly 
made  up  of  pure  sand  and  particles  of  flinty  matter,  contains  compara- 
tively much  fewer  pores;  and,  from  the  large  size  of  the  individual  par- 
ticles, assisted  by  their  irregularity,  the  canals  are  wider,  the  circula- 
tion of  air  freer,  and,  consequently,  the  whole  is  much  more  easily  dried. 
When  this  state  of  matters  exists,  the  best  treatment  is  to  leave  all  the 
stones  which  occur  on  the  surface  of  the  field,  as  they  cast  shades',  and 
thereby  prevent  or  retard  the  evaporation  of  water. 

"  We  will  not,  however,  make  any  further  observations  on  this  very 
rare  case,  but  will  rather  proceed  to  Fig.  92,  a  much  more  frequent,  and, 
in  every  respect,  more  important  condition  of  soil  :  I  refer  to  an  excess 
of  water. 

"  When  water  is  added  to  perfectly  dry  soil,  it,  of  course,  in  the  first 
instance,  fills  the  interstitial  canals,  and  from  these  enters  the  pores  ol 
each  particle  •  and  if  the  supply  of  water  be  not  too  great,  the  canals 
speed,  ly  become  empty,  so  that  the  whole  of  the  fluid  is  taken  up  by 
the  pores  :  this,  we  have  already  seen,  is  the  healthy  condition  of  the 
soil.  If,  however,  the  supply  of  water  be  too  great,  as  is  the  case  when 


280  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

a  spring  gains  admission  into  the  soil,  or  when  the  sinking  of  the  fluid 
through  the  canals  to  a  sufficient  depth  below  the  surface  is  prevented, 
it  is  clear  that  these  also  must  get  filled  with  water  so  soon  as  the 
pores  have  become  saturated.  This,  then,  is  the  condition  of  undrained 
soil. 

"-Not  only  are  the  pores  filled,  but  the  interstitial  canals  are  likewise 
full  •  and  the  consequence  is,  that  the  whole  process  of  the  germination 
and  growth  of  vegetables  is  materially  interfered  with.  We  shall  here, 
therefore  briefly  state  the  injurious  effects  of  an  excess  of  water,  for  the 
purpose  of  impressing  more  strongly  on  your  minds  the  necessity  of 
thorough-draining,  as  the  first  and  most  essential  step  towards  the  im- 
provement of  your  soil. 

"  The  first  great  effect  of  an  excess  of  water  is,  that  it  produces  a  cor- 
responding diminution  of  the  amount  of  air  beneath  the  surface,  which 
air  is  of  the  greatest  possible  consequence  in  the  nutrition  of  plants  •  in 
fact,  if  entirely  excluded,  germination  could  not  take  place,  and  the  seed 
sown  would,  of  course,  either  decay  or  lie  dormant. 

"  Secondly,  an  excess  of  water  is  most  hurtful,  by  reducing  consider- 
ably the  temperature  of  the  soil  :  this  I  find,  by  careful  experiment,  to 
be  to  the  extent  of  six  and  a-half  degrees  Fahrenheit  in  Summer,  which 
amount  is  equivalent  to  an  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea  of  1,950 
feet. 

"  These  are  the  two  chief  injuries  of  an  excess  of  water  in  soil  which 
affect  the  soil  itself.  There  are  very  many  others  affecting  the  climate, 
&c.  j  but  these  not  so  connected  with  the  subject  in  hand  as  to  call  for 
an  explanation  here. 

"  Of  course,  all  these  injurious  effects  are  at  once  overcome  by 
thorough-draining,  the  result  of  which  is,  to  establish  a  direct  commun- 
ication between  the  interstitial  canals  and  the  drains,  by  which  means  it 
follows,  that  no  water  can  remain  any  length  of  time  in  these  canals 
without,  by  its  gravitation,  finding  its  way  into  the  drains. 

"  The  4th  Fig.  indicates  badly-cultivated  soil,  or  soil  in  which  large 
unbroken  clods  exist  :  which  clods,  as  we  have  already  seen,  are  very 
little  better  than  stones,  on  account  of  their  impermeability  to  air  and 
the  roots  of  plants, 

"  Too  much  cannot  be  said  in  favor  of  pulverizing  the  soil  :  even 
thorough-draining  itself  will  not  supersede  the  necessity  of  performing 
this  most  necessary  operation.  The  whole  valuable  effects  of  plowing, 
harrowing,  grubbing.  &c.,  may  be  reduced  to  this  :  and  almost  the  whole 
superiority  of  garden  over  field  produce  is  referable  to  the  greater  per- 
fection to  which  this  pulverizing  of  the  soil  can  be  carried. 


DRAINAGE  PREVENTS  DROUGHT.  281 

u  The  whole  success  of  the  drill  husbandry  is  owing,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, to  its  enabling  you  'to  stir  up  the  soil  well  during  the  progress  of 
your  crop:  which  stirring  up  is  of  no  value  beyond  its  effects  in  more 
minutely  pulverizing  the  soil,  increasing,  as  far  as  possible,  the  size  and 
number  of  the  interstitial  canals. 

"  Lest  any  one  should  suppose  that  the  contents  of  these  interstitial 
canals  must  be  so  minute  that  their  whole  amount  can  be  of  but  little 
consequence,  I  may  here  notice  the  fact,  that,  in  moderately  well  pul- 
verized soil,  they  amount  to  no  less  than  one-fourth  of  the  whole  bulk 
of  the  soil  itself;  for  example,  100  cubic  inches  of  moist  soil  (that  is, 
of  soil  in  which  the  pores  are  filled  with  water  while  the  canals  are 
filled  with  air),  contain  no  less  than  25  cubic  inches  of  air.  According 
to  this  calculation,  in  a  field  pulverized  to  the  depth  of  eight  inches,  a 
depth  perfectly  attainable  on  most  soils  by  careful  tillage,  every  impe- 
rial acre  will  retain  beneath  its  surface  no  less  than  12,545.280  cubic 
inches  of  air.  And.  to  take  one  more  element  into  the  calculation, 
supposing  the  soil  were  not  properly  drained,  the  sufficient  pulverizing 
of  an  additional  inch  in  depth  would  increase  the  escape  of  water  fron 
the  surface  by  upwards  of  one  hundred  gallons  a  day." 

Drainage  improves  the  quality  of  crops.  In  a  dry  sea- 
son, we  frequently  hear  the  farmer  boast  of  the  quality 
of  his  products.  His  hay-crop,  he  says,  is  light,  but  will 
"  spend"  much  better  than  the  crop  of  a  wet  season  ;  his 
potatoes  are  not  large,  but  they  are  sound  and  mealy. 
Indeed,  this  topic  need  not  be  enlarged  upon.  Every 
farmer  knows  that  his  wheat  and  corn  are  heavier  and 
more  sound  when  grown  upon  land  sufficiently  drained. 

Drainage  prevents  drought.  This  proposition  is  some- 
what startling  at  first  view.  How  can  draining  land 
make  it  more  moist?  One  would  as  soon  think  of  water- 
ing land  to  make  it  dry.  A  drought  is  the  enemy  we  all 
dread.  Professor  Espy  has  a  plan  for  producing  rain,  by 
lighting  extensive  artificial  fires.  A  great  objection  to 
his  theory  is,  that  he  cannot  limit  his  showers  to  his  own 
land,  and  all  the  public  would  never  be  ready  for  a  show- 
er on  the  same  day.  If  we  can  really  protect  our  land 
from  drought,  by  underdraining  it,  everybody  may  at  once 
engage  in  the  work  without  offence  to  his  neighbor. 


282  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

If  we  take  up  a  handfull  of  rich  soil  of  almost  any  kind, 
after  a  heavy  rain,  we  can  squeeze  it  hard  enough  with 
the  hand  to  press  out  drops  of  water.  If  we  should  take 
of  the  same  soil  a  large  quantity,  after  it  was  so  dry  that 
not  a  drop  of  water  could  be  pressed  out  by  hand,  and 
subject  it  to  the  pressure  of  machinery,  we  should  force 
from  it  more  water.  Any  boy,  who  has  watched  the  pro- 
cess of  making  cider  with  the  old-fashioned  press,  has 
seen  the  pomace,  after  it  had  been  once  pressed  appa- 
rently dry  and  cut  down,  and  the  screw  applied  anew  to 
the  "  cheese,"  give  out  quantities  of  juice.  These  facts 
illustrate,  first,  how  much  water  may  be  held  in  the  soil 
by  attraction.  They  show,  again,  that  more  water  is  held 
by  a  pulverized  and  open  soil,  than  by  a  compact  and 
close  one.  Water  is  held  in  the  soil  between  the  minute 
particles  of  earth.  If  these  particles  be  pressed  together 
compactly,  there  is  no  space  left  between  them  for  water. 
The  same  is  true  of  soil  naturally  compact.  This  com- 
pactness exists  more  or  less  in  most  subsoils,  certainly  in 
all  through  which  water  does  not  readily  pass.  Hence, 
all  these  subsoils  are  rendered  more  permeable  to  water 
by  being  broken  up  and  divided ;  and  more  retentive  by 
having  the  particles  of  which  they  are  composed  separat- 
ed, one  from  another — in  a  word,  by  pulverization.  This 
increased  capacity  to  contain  moisture  by  attraction,  is 
the  greatest  security  against  drought.  The  plants,  in  a  dry 
time  send  their  rootlets  throughout  the  soil,  and  flourish  in 
the  moisture  thus  stored  up  for  their  time  of  need.  The 
pulverization  of  drained  land  may  be  produced,  partly  by 
deep,  or  subsoil  plowing,  which  is  always  necessary  to 
perfect  the  object  of  thorough- draining ;  but  it  is  much 
aided,  in  stiff  clays,  also,  by  the  shrinkage  of  the  soil  by 
drying. 

Drainage  resists  drought,  again,  by  the  very  deepening 
of  the  soil  of  which  we  have  already  spoken.  The  roots 


DRAINAGE  PREVENTS  DROUGHT.  283 

of  plants,  we  have  seen,  will  not  extend  into  stagnant 
water.  If,  then,  as  is  frequently  the  case,  even  on  sandy 
plains,  the  water-line  be,  in  early  Spring,  very  near  the 
surface,  the  seed  may  be  planted,  may  vegetate,  and  throw 
up  a  goodly  show  of  leaves  and  stalks,  which  may  flourish 
as  long  as  the  early  rains  -  continue ;  but,  suddenly,  the 
rains  cease ;  the  sun  comes  out  in  his  June  brightness ;  the 
water-line  lowers  at  once  in  the  soil ;  the  roots  have  no 
depth  to  draw  moisture  from  below,  and  the  whole  field  of 
clover,  or  of  corn,  in  a  single  week,  is  past  recovery. 
Now,  if  this  light,  sandy  soil  be  drained,  so  that,  at  the 
first  start  of  the  crop,  there  is  a  deep  seed-bed  free  from 
water,  the  roots  strike  downward,  at  once,  and  thus  pre- 
pare for  a  drought.  The  writer  has  seen  upon  deep- 
trenched  land  in  his  own  garden,  parsnips,  which,  before 
midsummer,  had  extended  downward  three  feet,  before 
they  were  as  large  as  a  common  wrhiplash ;  and  yet, 
through  the  Summer  drought,  continued  to  thrive  till  they 
attained  in  Autumn  a  length,  including  tops,  of  about 
seven  feet,  and  an  extraordinary  size.  A  moment's  reflec- 
tion will  satisfy  any  one  that,  the  dryer  the  soil  in  Spring, 
the  deeper  will  the  roots  strike,  and  the  better  able  will  be 
the  plant  to  endure  the  Summer's  drought. 

Again,  drainage  and  consequent  pulverization  and  deep- 
ening of  the  soils  increase  their  capacity  to  absorb  moisture 
from  the  atmosphere,  and  thus  afford  protection  against 
drought.  Watery  vapor  is  constantly,  in  all  dry  weather, 
rising  from  the  surface  of  the  earth;  and  plants,  in  the 
day-time,  are  also,  from  their  leaves  and  bark,  giving  oif 
moisture  which  they  draw  from  the  soil.  But  Nature  has 
provided  a  wonderful  law  of  compensation  for  this  waste, 
which  wnild,  without  such  provision,  parch  the  earth  tu 
barrenness  in  a  single  rainless  month. 

The  capacity  of  the  atmosphere  to  take  up  and  convey 
water,  furnishes  one  of  the  grandest  illustrations  of  the 


284  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

perfect  work  of  the  Author  of  the  Universe.  "All  the 
rivers  run  into  the  sea,  yet  the  sea  is  not  full ;"  and  the 
sea  is  riot  full,  because  the  numerous  great  rivers  and 
their  millions  of  tributaries,  ever  flowing  from  age  to  age, 
convey  to  the  ocean  only  as  much  water  as  the  atmos- 
phere carries  back  in  vapor,  and  discharges  upon  the 
hills.  The  warmer  the  atmosphere,  the  greater  its  capa- 
city to  hold  moisture.  The  heated,  thirsty  air  of  the 
tropics  drinks  up  the  water  of  the  ocean,  and  bears  it 
awray  to  the  colder  regions,  where,  through  condensation 
by  cold,  it  becomes  visible  as  a  cloud ;  and  as  a  huge 
sponge  pressed  by  an  invisible  hand,  the  cloud,  condensed 
still  further  by  cold,  sends  down  its  water  to  the  earth 
in  rain. 

The  heated  air  over  our  fields  and  streams,  in  Summer, 
is  loaded  with  ^moisture  as  the  sun  declines.  The  earth 
has  been  cooled  by  radiation  of  its  heat,  and  by  constant 
evaporation  through  the  day.  By  contact  with  the  cooler 
soil,  the  air,  borne  by  its  thousand  currents  gently  along 
its  surface,  is  condensed,  and  yields  its  moisture  to  the 
thirsty  earth  again,  in  the  form  of  dew. 

At  a  Legislative  Agricultural  Meeting,  held  in  Albany, 
New  York,  January  25th,  1855,  "  the  great  drought  of 
1854"  being  the  subject,  the  secretary  stated  that  "the 
experience  of  the  past  season  has  abundantly  proved  that 
thorough-drainage  upon  soils  requiring  it,  has  proved  a 
very  great  relief  to  the  farmer;"  that  "the  crops  upon 
such  lands  have  been  far  better,  generally,  than  those 
upon  undrained  lands,  in  the  same  locality  :"  and  that, 
"in  many  instances,  the  increased  crop  has  been  sufficient 
to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  improvement  in  a  single 
year." 

Mr.  Joseph  Harris,  at  the  same  meeting,  said  :  "  An 
underdrained  soil  will  be  found  damper  in  dry  weather,  than 
an  undrained  one,  and  the  thermometer  shows  a  drained 


DRAINAGE  PREVENTS  DROUGHT.  285 

Boil  warmer  in  cold  weather,  and  cooler  in  hot  weather, 
than  one  which  is  undrained." 

The  secretary  of  the  New  York  State  Agricultural 
Society,  in  his  Report  for  1855,  says  :  "The  testimony  of 
farmers,  in  different  sections  of  the  State,  is  almost  unani- 
mous, that  drained  lands  have  suffered  far  less  from 
drought  than  undrained."  Alleghany  county  reports  that 
"  drained  lands  have  been  less  affected  by  the  drought 
than  undrained  ;"  Chatauque  county,  that  "  the  drained 
lands  have  stood  the  drought  better  than  the  undrained." 
The  report  from  Clinton  county  says  :  "  Drained  lands 
have  been  less  affected  by  the  drought  than  undrained." 
"Montgomery  county  reports :  "  We  find  that  drained 
lands  have  a  better  crop  in  either  wet  or  dry  seasons  than 
undrained." 

B.  F.  Nourse,  of  Orrington,  Maine,  states  that,  on  his 
drained  land,  in  that  State,  "  during  the  drought  of  1854, 
there  was  at  all  times  sufficient  dampness  apparent  on 
scraping  the  surface  of  the  ground  with  his  foot  in  pass- 
ing, and  a  crop  of  beans  was  planted,  grown  and  gathered 
therefrom,  without  as  much  rain  as  will  usually  fall  in  a 
shower  of  fifteen  minutes'  duration,  while  vegetation  on 
the  next  field  was  parching  for  lack  of  moisture. 

A  committee  of  the  New  York  Farmers'  Club,  which 
visited  the  farm  of  Prof.  Mapes,  in  New  Jersey,  in  the 
time  of  a  severe  drought,  in  1855,  reported  that  the  Pro- 
fessor's fences  were  the  boundaries  of  the  drought,  all  the 
lands  outside  being  affected  by  it,  while  his  remained  free 
from  injury.  This  was  attributed,  both  by  the  committee 
and  by  Prof.  Mapes  himself,  to  thorough-drainage  and 
deep  tillage  with  the  subsoil  plow. 

Mr.  Shedd,  in  the  N.  K  Farmer,  says  : 

"  A  simple  illustration  will  show  the  effect  which  stagnant  water, 
within  a  foot  or  two  of  the  surface,  has  on  the  roots  of  plants. 


286 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 


"  Perhaps  it  will  aid  the  reader,  who  doubts  the  benefit  of  thorough, 
draining  in  case  of  drought,  to  see  why  it  is  beneficial. 
Fig.  95.  Fig.  96. 


Section  of  land  before 
it  is  drained. 


Section  of  land  after 
it  is  drained. 


"  In  the  first  figure.  1  represents  the  surface  soil,  through  which 
evaporation  takes  place,  using  up  the  heat  which  might  otherwise  go 
to  the  roots  of  plants  ;  2,  represents  the  water  table,  or  surface  of  stag- 
nant water  below  which  roots  seldom  go;  3,  water  of  evaporation;  4, 
water  of  capillary  attraction  •  5,  water  of  drainage,  or  stagnant 
water. 

"  In  the  second  figure,  1  represents  the  surface-soil  warmed  by  the 
sun  and  Summer  rains  ;  2,  the  water-table  nearly  four  feet  below  the 
surface — roots  of  the  wheat  plant  have  been  traced  to  a  depth  of  more 
than  four  feet  in  a  free  mold  j  3,  water  of  capillary  attraction  :  4,  water 
of  drainage,  or  stagnant  water." 


TEMPERATURE    AS    AFFECTED   BY    DRAINAGE.  287 


CHAPTER  XY. 

TEMPERATURE   AS    AFFECTED   BY   DRAINAGE. 

Drainage  Warms  the  Soil  in  Spring. — Heat  cannot  go  down  in  Wet  Land  — • 
Drainage  causes  greater  Deposit  of  Dew  in  Summer. — Dew  warms  Plants 
in  Night,  Cools  them  in  the  Morning  Sun. — Drainage  varies  Temperature 
by  Lessening  Evaporation. — What  is  Evaporation. — How  it  produces  Cold. 
— Drained  Land  Freezes  Deepest,  but  Thaws  Soonest,  and  the  Reasons. 

Drainage  raises  the  temperature  of  the  soil,  ~by  allowmg 
the  rain  to  pass  downwards.  In  the  growing  season,  espe- 
cially in  the  Spring,  the  rain  is  considerably  warmer  than 
the  soil.  If  the  soil  be  saturated  with  the  cold  snow-water, 
the  water  which  falls  must,  of  course,  run  away  upon  the 
surface.  If  the  soil  be  drained,  the  rain-water  finds  ready 
admission  into  it,  carrying  and  imparting  to  it  a  portion 
of  its  heat.  The  experiments  of  Count  Rumford,  show- 
ing that  heat  is  not  propagated  downward  in  fluids,  may 
be  found  at  page  273.  This  is  a  principle  too  important 
to  be  overlooked,  especially  in  New  England,  where  we 
need  every  aid  from  Nature  and  Art,  to  contend  success- 
fully against  the  brevity  of  the  planting  season.  Soil  sat- 
urated with  cold  water,  cannot  be  warmed  by  any  amount 
of  heat  applied  to  the  surface.  "Warm  water  is  lighter 
than  cold  water,  and  stays  at  the  surface.  In  boiling 
water  in  a  kettle,  we  apply  fire  at  the  bottom,  and  no 
amount  of  heat  at  the  surface  of  the  vessel  would  produce 
the  desired  effect.  So  rapid  is  the  passage  of  heat  upward 
in  water,  that  the  hand  may  without  injury  be  held  upon 
the  bottom  of  a  kettle  of  boiling  water  one  minute  after  it 
has  been  removed  from  the  fire. 


288 


FAKM   DliAINAGE. 


The  following  experiments  and  illustrations,  from  the 
Horticulturist  of  Nov.  '1856,  beautifully  illustrate  this 
point : 

"RATIONALE  OF  DRAINING  LAND  EXPLAINED. 

l-  The  reason  why  drained  land  gains  heat,  and  water-logged  land  is 
always  cold,  consists  in  the  well-known  fact  that  heat  cannot  be  trans- 
mitted downwards  through  water.  This  may  readily  be  seen  by  the 
following  experiments  : 

"  Experiment  No.  \ . — A  square  box  was  made,  of  the  form  repre- 
sented by  the  annexed  diagram,  eight- 
een inches  deep,  eleven  inches  wide 
at  top,  and  six  inches  wide  at  bottom. 
It  was  filled  with  peat,  saturated 
with  water  to  c,  forming  to  that 
depth  (twelve  and  a  half  inches)  a 
sort  of  artificial  bog.  The  box  was 
then  filled  with  water  to  d.  A  ther- 
mometer a,  was  plunged,  so  that  its 
bulb  was  within  one  inch  and  a  half 
of  the  bottom.  The  temperature  of 
the  whole  mass  of  peat  and  water 
was  found  to  be  39i°  Fahr.  A  gal- 
lon of  boiUng  water  was  then  added  ; 
it  raised  the  surface  of  the  water  to 
e.  In  five  minutes,  the  thermometer, 
a,  rose  to  44°,  owing  to  the  conduc- 
tion of  heat  by  the  thermometer  and 

its  guard  tube  ;  at  ten  minutes  from  the  introduction  of  the  hot  water, 
the  thermometer,  a,  rose  to  46°,  and  it  subsequently  rose  no  higher. 
Another  thermometer,  6,  dipping  under  the  surface  of  the  water  at  e, 
was  then  introduced,  and  the  following  are  the  indications  of  the  two 
thermometers  at  the  respective  intervals,  reckoning  from  the  time  the 

hot  water  was  supplied  : 

Thermometer  &.         Thermometei'  a. 

20  minutes 1 50°  46° 

1  hour    30         "       101°  45° 

2  hours  30         "      80i°  42° 

12     "       40         "  45°  40° 


Fig.  97. 


'*  The  mean  temperature  of  the  external  air  to  which  the  box  was  ex- 


TEMPERATURE   AS   AFFECTED   BY    DRAINAGE.  289 

during  the  above  period,  was  42°,  the  maximum  being  47°,  and 
the  minimum  37°. 

'•  Experiment  No.  2. — With  the  same  arrangement  as  in  thepieceding 
case,  a  gallon  of  boiling  water  was  introduced  above  the  peat  and 
water,  when  the  thermometer  a,  was  at  36° ;  in  ten  minutes  it  rose  to 
40°.  The  cock  was  then  turned  for  the  purpose  of  drainage,  which 
was  but  slowly  effected ;  and,  at  the  end  of  twenty  minutes,  the  ther- 
mometer a,  indicated  40° '}  at  twenty-five  minutes,  42°,  whilst  the 
thermometer  £,  was  142°.  At  thirty  minutes,  the  cock  was  withdrawn 
from  the  box,  and  more  free  egress  of  water  being  thus  afforded, 
at  thirty-five  minutes  the  flow  was  no  longer  continuous,  and  the  ther- 
mometer bj  indicated  48°.  The  mass  was  drained,  and  permeable  to  a 
fresh  supply  of  water.  Accordingly,  another  gallon  of  boiling  water 
was  poured  over  it;  and,  in 

3  minutes,  the  thermometer  a.  rose  to 77°. 

5  "  "  '  fell  to 76i°. 

15  "  "  "       70*° 

20  "  "  remained  at. ..  71°. 

1  hour  50  "  "  "  "  ...  70*°. 

"  In  these  two  experiments,  the  thermometer  at  the  bottom  of  the  box 
suddenly  rose  a  few  degrees  immediately  after  the  hot  water  was 
added ;  and  it  might  be  inferred  that  the  heat  was  carried  downwards 
by  the  water.  But,  in  reality,  the  rise  was  owing  to  the  action  of  the 
hot  water  on  the  thermometer,  and  not  to  its  action  upon  the  cold 
water.  To  prove  this,  the  perpendicular  thermometers  were  removed. 
The  box  was  filled  with  peat  and  water  to  within  three  inches  of  the 
top,  a  horizontal  thermometer,  a  /,  having  been  previously  secured 
through  a  hole  made  in  the  side  of  the  box,  by  means  of  a  tight-fitting 
cork,  in  which  the  naked  stem  of  the  thermometer  was  grooved.  A 
gallon  of  boiling  water  was  then  added.  The  thermometer,  a  very 
delicate  one,  was  not  in  the  least  affected  by  the  boiling  water  in  the  top 
of  the  box. 

"  In  this  experiment,  the  wooden  box  may  be  supposed  to  be  a  field ; 
the  peat  and  cold  water  represent  the  water-logged  portion ;  rain  falls 
on  the  surface,  and  becomes  warmed  by  contact  with  the  soil,  and,  thus 
heated,  descends.  But  it  is  stopped  by  the  cold  water,  and  the  heat 
will  go  no  further.  But,  if  the  soil  is  drained,  and  not  water-logged, 
the  warm  rain  trickles  through  the  crevices  of  the  earth,  carrying  to 
the  drain-level  the  high  temperature  it  had  gained  on  the  surface,  parts 
13 


290  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

with  it  to  the  soil  as  it  passes  down,  and  thus  produces  that  bottom  heat 
which  is  so  essential  to  plants,  although  so  few  suspect  its  existence." 

Water,  although  it  will  not  conduct  heat  downwards,  is  a 
ready  vehicle  of  cold  from  the  surface  towards  the  bottom. 
"Water  becomes  heavier  by  cooling  till  it  is  reduced  to  about 
39°,  at  which  point  it  attains  its  greatest  density,  and  has 
a  tendency  to  go  to  the  bottom  until  the  whole  mass  is 
reduced  to  this  low  temperature.  Thus,  the  circulation 
of  water  in  the  saturated  soil,  in  some  conditions  of  the 
temperature  of  the  surface  and  subsoil,  may  have  a  chil- 
ling effect  which  could  not  be  produced  on  drained  soil. 

After  water  is  reduced  to  about  39°,  instead  of  obeying 
the  common  law  of  becoming  heavier  by  cooling,  it  forms 
a  remarkable  exception  to  it,  and  becomes  lighter  until  it 
freezes.  Were  it  not  for  this  admirable  provision  of 
Nature,  all  our  ponds  and  rivers  would,  in  the  Winter, 
become  solid  ice  from  the  surface  to  the  bottom.  Now 
as  the  surface  water  is  chilled  it  goes  to  the  bottom,  and 
is  replaced  by  warmer  water,  which  rises,  until  the  whole 
is  reduced  to  the  point  of  greatest  density.  Then  the 
circulation  ceases,  and  the  water  colder  than  39°  remains 
at  the  surface,  is  converted  into  ice  which  becomes  still 
lighter,  by  crystallization,  and  floats  upon  the  surface. 

No  experiments,  showing  the  temperature  of  undrained 
soils  at  various  depths,  in  the  United  States,  have  come 
to  our  knowlege.  Mr.  Gisborne  says  :  "  Many  experi- 
ments have  shown  that,  in  retentive  soils,  the  temperature, 
at  two  or  three  feet  below  the  surface  of  the  water-table, 
is,  at  no  period  of  the  year,  higher  than  from  46°  to  48°  in 
agricultural  Britain."  Prof.  Henry  states  in  the  Patent 
Office  Report  for  1857,  that  in  the  cellars  of  the  observa- 
tory, at  Paris,  at  the  depth  of  sixty-seven  and  a  half  feetj 
in  fifty  years,  the  temperature  has  never  varied  a  tenth  of 
a  degree  from  53°  28',  in  all  that  period,  Summer  01 
Winter. 


TEMPERATURE    AS    AFFECTED    BY   DRAINAGE.  291 

Mr.  Parkes  gives  the  results  of  a  valuable  series  of 
experiments,  in  which  he  compared  the  temperature  of 
drained  and  undrained  portions  of  a  bog.  He  found  the 
temperature  of  the  undrained  portion  to  remain  steadily 
at  46°,  at  all  depths,  from  one  to  thirty  feet ;  and  at  seven 
inches  from  the  surface,  the  temperature  remained  at  47° 
during  the  experiments.  During  the  same  period,  the 
temperature  of  the  drained  portion  was  48^°  at  two  feet 
seven  inches  below  the  surface,  and  at  seven  inches, 
reached  as  high  as  66°  during  a  thunder-storm  ;  while,  on 
a  mean  of  thirty-live  observations,  the  temperature  at  the 
the  latter  depth  was  10°  higher  than  at  the  same  depth  in 
the  undrained  portion  of  the  bog. 

We  find  in  the  "  Agriculture  of  New  York,"  the  results 
of  observations  made  at  Albany,  and  at  Scott,  in  that 
State,  in  the  year  1848,  upon  temperature  at  different 
depths.  The  condition  of  the  soil  is  not  described,  but  it 
is  presumed  that  it  was  soil  naturally  drained  in  both 
cases.  A  few  of  the  results  may  give  the  reader  some 
idea  of  the  range  of  underground  temperature,  as  com- 
pared with  that  of  the  air. 

Temperature  at  Albany  at  two  feet  depth. 

"  "  "  highest  August  1 7  and  1 8, 70° 

"  "  "  lowest  February  28, 32|° 

"  "  «  Range, 37J5' 

"  "  "  at  four  feet  depth. 

"  "  "  highest  July  29, 64£° 

"  "  "  lowest  February  25, 35^° 

"  "  "  Range, 29° 

"  "  "  of  the  air,  February  12, —3° 

"  "  t£  "         i:       August,  3,  P.M......  90° 

"  "  "  Range, 93°  • 

Temperature  at  Seott  at  two  feet  depth. 

"  "  "  highest.  August  17  and  18; 64° 

"  "  "  at  four  ft.  depth,  17  days  in  Aug.  60° 

"  "  "  of  the  air,  at  3,  P.M.,  highest..  90° 


292  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

The  temperature  of  falling  rain,  however,  in  the  hot 
season,  is  many  degrees  cooler  than  the  lower  stratum  of 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  surface  of  the  earth  upon  which 
it  falls.  The  effects  of  rain  on  drained  soil,  in  the  heat  of 
Summer,  are,  then,  twofold ;  to  cool  the  burning  surface, 
which  is,  as  we  have  seen,  much  warmer  than  the  rain, 
and,  at  the  same  time,  to  warm  the  subsoil  which  is  cooler 
than  the  rain  itself,  as  it  falls,  and  very  much  cooler  than 
the  rain-water,  as  it  is  warmed  by  its  passage  through  the 
hot  surface  soil.  These  are  beautiful  provisions  of  Nature, 
by  which  the  excesses  of  heat  and  cold  are  mitigated,  and 
the  temperature  of  the  soil  rendered  more  uniform,  upon 
land  adapted,  by  drainage,  to  her  genial  influences. 

Upon  the  saturated  and  water-logged  bog,  as  we  have 
seen,  the  effect  of  the  greatest  heat  is  insufficient  to  raise 
the  temperature  of  the  subsoil  a  single  degree,  while  the 
surface  may  be  burned  up  and  "  shrivelled  like  a  parched 
scroll." 

Drainage  also  raises  the  temperature  of  the  soil  by  the 
admission  of  warm  air.  This  proposition  is  closely  con- 
nected with  that  just  discussed.  When  the  air  is  warmer 
than  the  soil,  as  it  always  is  in  the  Spring-time,  the  water 
from  the  melting  snow,  or  from  rain,  upon  drained  land, 
passes  downward,  and  runs  off  by  its  gravitation.  As 
u  Nature  abhors  a  vacuum,"  the  little  spaces  in  the  soil, 
from  which  the  water  passes,  must  be  filled  with  air,  and 
this  air  can  only  be  supplied  from  the  surface,  and,  being 
warmer  than  the  ground,  tends  to  raise  its  temperature. 
No  such  effect  can  be  produced  in  land  not  drained, 
because  no  water  runs  out  of  it,  and  there  are,  conse- 
quently, no  such  spaces  opened  for  the  warm  air  to  enter. 

Drainage  equalizes  the  temperature  of  the  soil  in  Sum- 
mer by  increasing  the  deposit  of  dew.  Of  this  we  shall 
speak  further,  in  a  future  chapter. 


TEMPEKATUKE    AS    AFFECTED   BY   DRAINAGE.  293 

Drainage  raises  the  temperature  in  Spring  ~by  diminish- 
ing evaporation.  Evaporation  may  be  defined  to  be  the 
conversion  of  liquid  and  solid  bodies  into  elastic  fluids,  by 
the  influence  of  caloric. 

By  heating  water  over  a  fire,  bubbles  rise  from  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  adhere  awhile  to  the  sides  of  it,  and 
then  ascend  to  the  surface,  and  burst  and  go  off  in  visible 
vapor,  or,  in  other  words,  by  evaporation.  Water  is 
evaporated  by  the  heat  of  the  sun  merely,  and  even  \\dth- 
out  this  heat,  in  the  open  air.  It  is  evaporated  at  very 
low  temperatures,  when  fully  exposed  to  the  air.  Even 
ice  evaporates  in  the  open  air.  We  often  observe  in 
Winter,  that  a  thin  covering  of  ice  or  snow  disappears 
from  our  roads,  although  there  has  been  no  thawing 
weather. 

In  another  chapter,  we  have  considered  the  subject  of 
"Evaporation  and  Filtration,"  and  endeavored  to  give  some 
general  idea  of  the  proportion  of  the  rain  which  escapes 
by  evaporation.  We  have  seen,  that  evaporation  proceeds 
much  more  rapidly  from  a  surface  of  water,  as  a  pond  or 
river,  than  from  a  land  surface,  unless  it  be  fully  saturated, 
and  that  evaporation  from  the  water  .exceeds  the  whole 
amount  of  rain,  about  as  much  as  evaporation  from  the 
land  falls  short  of  the  amount  of  rain.  Thus,  by  this 
simple  agency  of  evaporation,  the  vast  quantities  of  water 
that  are  constantly  flowing,  in  all  the  rivers  of  the  earth, 
into  the  sea,  are  brought  back  again  to  the  land,  and  so 
the  great  system  of  circulation  is  maintained  throughout 
the  ages. 

As  evaporation  is  greatest  from  a  water-surface,  so  it  is 
greater,  other  things  being  equal,  according  to  the  wetness 
of  the  surface  of  any  given  field.  If  the  field  be  covered 
with  water,  it  becomes  a  water-surface  for  the  time,  and 
the  evaporation  is  like  that  from  a  pond.  If.  as  is  often 
the  case,  the  water  stands  on  it  in  spots,  over  half  its 


294  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

surface,  and  the  rest  is  saturated,  the  evaporation  is 
scarcely  less,  and  has  been  said  to  be  even  more ;  while, 
if  the  surface  be  comparatively  dry,  the  evaporation  is 
very  little. 

But  what  harm  does  evaporation  do?  and  what  has  all 
this  scientific  talk  to  do  with  drainage  ?  These,  my  friend, 
are  very  practical  questions,  and  just  the  ones  which  it  is 
proposed  to  answer ;  but  we  must  bear  in  mind  that,  as 
Nature  conducts  her  grand  affairs  by  systematic  laws,  the 
small  portion  of  her  domain  which  for  a  brief  space  of 
time  we  occupy,  is  not  exempted  from  their  operation. 
Some  of  these  laws  we  may  comprehend,  and  turn  our 
knowledge  of  them  to  practical  account.  Of  others,  we 
may  note  the  results,  without  apprehending  the  reasons 
of  them  ;  for  it  is  true — 

"  There  are  more  things  in  Heaven  and  earth,  Horatio, 
Than  are  dreamt  cf  in  your  philosophy." 

Discussions  of  this  kind  may  seem  dry,  though  the  sub- 
ject itself  be  moisture.  They  belong,  certainly,  to  the 
topic  under  consideration. 

Evaporation  does  harm  in  the  Spring-time,  because  it 
produces  cold,  just  when  we  most  want  heat.  How  it 
produces  cold,  is  not  so  readily  explained.  The  fact  may 
be  made  as  evident  as  the  existence  of  sin  in  the  world, 
and,  possibly,  the  reason  of  it  may  be  as  unsatisfactory. 

The  books  say,  that  heat  always  disappears  when  a  solid 
body  becomes  a  liquid ;  and  so  it  is,  that  the  air  always 
remains  cool  while  the  snow  and  ice  are  melting  in  Spring- 
Again,  it  is  said  that  heat  always  disappears,  when  a  fluid 
becomes  vapor.  These  are  said  to  be  laws  or  principles 
of  nature,  and  are  said  to  explain  other  phenomena.  To 
a  practical  mind,  it  is  perhaps  just  as  satisfactory  to  say 
that  evaporation  produces  cold,  as  to  state  the  principle 
or  law  in  the  language  of  science. 

That  the  fact  is  so,  may  be  proved  by  many  illustra- 


TEMPERATURE   AS   AFFECTED   BY   DRAINAGE.  295 

tions.  Stockhardt  gives  the  following  experiment,  which 
is  strikingly  appropriate : 

"  Fill  a  tube  half  full  of  water,  and  fasten  securely  round  the  bulb 
of  it,  a  piece  of  cloth.  Saturate  the  cloth  with  cold  water,  and  then 
twirl  the  tube  rapidly  between  the  hands  \  presently  the  water  in  the 
tube  will  become  sensibly  colder,  and  the  degree  of  cold  may  be  accu- 
rately determined  by  the  thermometer.  Moisten  the  cloth  with  ether 
a  very  volatile  liquid,  and  twirl  it  again  in  the  same  manner  as  before, 
by  which  means,  its  contents,  even  in  Summer,  may  be  converted  into 
ice." 

It  is  very  fortunate  for  us,  that  our  Spring  showers 
are  not  of  ether ;  for  then,  instead  of  thawing,  our  land 
would  freeze  the  harder !  The  heat  of  the  blood  it 
about  98° ;  yet  man  can  endure  a  heat  of  many  degrees 
more,  and  even  labor  under  a  Summer  sun,  which  would 
raise  the  thermometer  to  130°,  without  the  temperature 
of  his  blood  being  materially  affected,  and  it  is  because 
of  perspiration,  which  absorbs  the  surplus  heat,  or,  in  other 
words,  creates  cold.  It  is  said,  too,  that  on  the  same 
principle,  if  two  saucers,  one  filled  with  water  warm 
enough  to  give  off  visible  vapor,  the  other  filled  with 
water  just  from  the  well,  are  exposed  in  a  sharp  frosty 
morning,  that  filled  with  the  warm  water  will  exhibit  ice 
soonest.  "Wine  is  cooled  by  evaporation,  by  wrapping 
the  bottle  in  wet  flannel,  and  exposing  it  to  the  air. 

If,  after  all  this,  any  one  doubts  the  fact  that  evapora- 
tion tends  to  produce  cold,  let  him  countenance  his  skep- 
ticism, by  wetting  his  face  with  warm  water,  and  going 
into  the  air  in  a  Winter's  day,  and  his  faith  will  be  greatly 
strengthened. 

We  have,  in  the  northern  part  of  America,  most  water 
in  the  soil  in  the  Spring  of  the  year,  just  at  the  time 
when  we  most  need  a  genial  warmth  to  promote  germina- 
tion. If  land  is  well  drained,  this  water  sinks  downward, 
and  runs  away  in  the  drains,  instead  of  passing  upward  by 
evaporation. 


296  FAKM    DRAINAGE. 

Drainage,  therefore,  diminishes  evaporation  simply  by 
removing  the  surplus  snow  and  rain-water  by  filtration. 
It  thus  raises  the  temperature  of  the  soil  in  that  part  of 
the  season,  when  water  is  flowing  from  the  drains  ;  but,  in 
the  heat  of  Summer,  the  influence  of  the  showers  which 
refresh  without  saturating  the  soil,  and  are  retained  in  it 
by  attraction,  is  not  lessened.  As  a  good  soil  retains  by 
attraction  about  one-half  its  weight  of  water  that  cannot 
be  drained  out,  there  can  be  no  reasonable  apprehension 
that  the  "  gentle  Summer  showers  "  will  be  wasted  by  fil- 
tration, even  upon  thorough-drained  land,  while  an  avenue 
is  open,  by  the  drains,  for  the  escape  of  drowning  floods. 

To  show  the  general  effect  of  drainage,  in  raising  the 
temperature  of  wet  lands  in  Summer,  the  following  state- 
ment of  Mr.  Parkes  is  valuable.  An  elevation  of  the  tem- 
perature of  the  subsoil  ten  degrees,  will  be  seen  to  be 
very  material,  when  we  consider  that  Indian  corn  will  not 
vegetate  at  all  at  53°,  but  will  start  at  once  at  63°,  55° 
being  its  lowest  point  of  germination  : 

"  As  regards  the  temperature  of  the  water  derived  from  drainage  at 
different  seasons  of  the  year,  I  am  unacquainted  with  any  published 
facts.  This  is  a  subject  of  the  highest  import,  as  thermometric  obser- 
vations may  be  rendered  demonstrative,  in  the  truest  manner,  of  the 
effect  of  drainage  on  the  climate  of  the  soil.  At  present,  I  must  limit 
myself  to  saying,  that  I  have  never  known  the  water  of  drainage  issue 
from  land  drained  at  Midsummer,  to  depths  of  four  and  five  feet,  at  a 
higher  temperature  than  52°  or  53°  Fahrenheit ;  whereas,  in  the  follow- 
ing year  and  subsequent  years,  the  water  discharged  from  the  same 
drains,  at  the  same  period,  will  issue  at  a  temperature  of  60°,  and  even 
so  high  as  63°,  thus  exhibiting  the  increase  of  heat  conferred  during 
the  Summer  months  on  the  terrestrial  climate  by  drainage.  This  is  the 
all-important  fact  connected  with  the  art  and  science  of  land-drainage." 

Besides  affecting  favorably  the  temperature  of  the  par 
ticnlar  field  which  is  drained,  the  general  effect  of  the 
drainage  of  wet  lands  upon  the  climate  of  the  neighbor- 
hood has  often  been  noticed.  In  the  paper  already  cited, 
emanating  from  the  Board  of  Health,  we  find  the  follow- 


TEMPERATURE   AS    AFFECTED   BY   DRAINAGE.  297 

ing  remarks,  which  are  in  accordance  with  all  observation 
in  districts  where  under-d  rain  age  has  been  generally  prac- 
ticed : 

Ci  Every  one  must  have  remarked,  on  passing  from  a  district  with  a 
retentive  soil  to  one  of  an  open  porous  nature — respectively  charac- 
terized as  cold  and  warm  soils — that,  often,  whilst  the  air  on  the  reten- 
tive soil  is  cold  and  raw,  that  on  the  drier  soil  is  comparatively  warm 
and  genial.  The  same  effect  which  is  here  caused  naturally,  may  be 
produced  artificially,  by  providing  for  the  perfect  escape  of  superfluous 
water  by  drainage,  so  as  to  leave  less  to  cool  down  the  air  by  evapora- 
tion. The  reason  of  this  difference  is  two-fold.  In  the  first  place, 
much  heat  is  saved,  as  much  heat  being  required  for  the  vaporization 
of  water,  as  would  elevate  the  temperature  of  more  than  three  million 
times  its  bulk  of  air  one  degree.  It  follows,  therefore,,  that  for  every  inch  in 
depth  of  water  carried  off  by  drains,  which  must  otherwise  evaporate,  as 
much  heat  is  saved  per  acre  as  would  elevate  eleven  thousand  million 
cubic  feet  of  air  one  degree  in  temperature.  But  that  is  not  all.  Not  only 
is  the  temperature  of  the  air  reduced,  but  its  dew  point  is  raised,  by  water 
being  evaporated  which  might  be  drained  off:  consequently,  the  want  of 
drainage  renders  the  air  both  colder  and  more  liable  to  the  formation  of 
dew  and  mists,  and  its  dampness  affects  comfort  even  more  than  its  tem- 
perature. It  is  easy,  then,  to  understand  how  local  climate  is  so  much 
affected  by  surplus  moisture,  and  so  remarkably  improved  by  drainage. 
A  farmer  being  asked  the  effect  on  temperature  of  some  new  drainage 
works,  replied,  that  all  he  knew  was,  that  before  the  drainage  he  could 
never  go  out  at  night  without  a  great  coat,  and  that  now  he  could,  so 
that  he  considered  it  made  the  difference  of  a  great  coat  to  him." 

Drainage  increases  the  coldness  of  the  subsoil  in  Winter. 
Whether  this  is  a  gain  or  loss  to  the  agriculturist,  is  not 
for  us  to  determine.  The  object  of  our  labor  is,  to  lay  the 
whole  subject  fairly  before  the  reader,  and  not  to  extol 
drainage  as  the  grand  panacea  of  bad  husbandry. 

Although  water  will  not  conduct  heat  downwards,  yet 
it  doubtless  prevents  the  deep  freezing  of  the  ground.  It 
has  already  been  seen,  that  the  temperature  of  the  earth,  a 
few  feet  below  the  surface,  is  above  the  freezing  point,  at 
all  times.  The  fact  that  the  ground  does  not  freeze,  usu- 
ally, even  in  New  England,  where  every  Winter  brings 
13* 


298  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

weather  below  Zero,  more  than  four  or  five  feet  deep,  in  the 
most  exposed  situations,  shows  conclusively  the  compara- 
tively even  temperature  of  the  subsoil.  The  water  which 
flows  underground  is  of  this  subsoil  temperature,  and,  in 
Winter,  warms  the  ground  through  which  it  flows.  In 
land  thoroughly  drained,  this  warm  water  cannot  rise 
above  the  drains,  and  so  cannot  defend  the  soil  from  frost. 

Drained  land  will,  undoubtedly,  freeze  deeper  than  un- 
drained  land,  and  this  is  a  fact  to  be  impressed  upon  all 
who  lay  tiles  in  a  cold  climate.  It  is  a  strong  argument 
for  deep  drainage.  "  Drain  deep,  or  drain  not,"  is  a  con- 
venient paraphrase  of  a  familiar  quotation.  How  often 
do  we  hear  it  said,  "My  meadow  never  freezes  more  than 
a  foot  deep  ;  there  will  never  be  any  trouble  from  frost  in 
that  place,  if  the  tiles  are  no  more  than  two  feet  deep." 
Be  assured,  brother  farmer,  that  the  frost  will  follow  tire 
water-table  downward,  and,  unless  the  warm  water  move 
in  sufficient  quantity  through  your  pipes  to  protect  them 
in  "Winter,  your  work  may  be  ruined  by  frost.  So  long 
as  much  water  is  flowing  in  pipes,  especially  if  it  be  from 
deep  springs,  they  will  be  safe  from  frost,  even  at  a  slight 
depth. 

Dr.  Madden  says,  that  it  has  been  proved  that  one 
great  source  of  ~ health  and  vigor  in  vegetation,  is  the 
great  difference  which  exists  between  the  temperature  of 
Summer  and  Winter,  which,  lie  says,  in  dry  soils,  often 
amounts  to  between  30°  and  40° ;  while,  in  very  wet  soils, 
it  seldom  exceeds  10°.  This  idea  may  have  value  in  a 
mild  climate ;  but,  probably,  in  New  England,  we  get 
cold  enough  for  our  good,  without  artificial  aids.  In 
another  view,  drainage  is  known  to  be  essential,  even  in 
Winter. 

Fruit  trees  are  almost  as  surely  destroyed  by  standing 
with  their  feet  in  cold  water  all  Winter,  as  any  of  us 
"  unfeathered  bipeds"  would  be  ;  while  the  solid  freezing 


TEMPEKATUKE    AS    AFFECTED   BY   DRAINAGE.  299 

of  the  earth  around  their  roots  does  not  harm  them. 
Perhaps  the  same  is  true  of  most  other  vegetation. 

The  deep  freezing  of  the  ground  is  often  mentioned  as 
a  mode  of  pulverization — as  a  sort  of  natural  subsoiling 
thrown  in  by  a  kind  Providence,  by  way  of  compensation 
for  some  of  the  evils  of  a  cold  climate.  Most  of  those, 
however,  who  have  wielded  the  pick-axe  in  laying  four- 
foot  drains,  in  clay  or  hard-pan,  will  have  doubts  whether 
Jack  Frost,  though  he  can  pull  up  our  fence-posts,  and 
throw  out  onr  "Winter  grain,  has  much  softened  the  earth 
two  feet  below  its  surface. 

That  the  frost  comes  out  of  drained  land  earlier  than 
undrained,  in  Spring,  we  are  satisfied,  both  by  personal 
observation,  and  by  the  statements  of  the  few  individuals 
who  have  practiced  thorough-drainage  in  our  cold  cli- 
mate. 

B.  F.  Nourse,  Esq.,  whose  valuable  statement  will  be 
found  in  a  later  chapter,  says,  that,  in  1858,  the  frost  came 
out  a  week,  at  least,  earlier  from  his  drained  land,  in 
Maine,  than  from  contiguous  undrained  land;  and  that, 
usually,  the  drained  land  is  in  condition  to  be  worked  as 
soon  as  the  frost  is  out,  quite  two  weeks  earlier  than  any 
other  land  in  the  vicinity.  Our  observations  on  our  own 
land,  fully  corroborate  the  opinion  of  Mr.  bourse. 

The  reasons  why  the  frost  should  come  out  of  drained 
land  soonest,  are,  that  land  that  is  dry  does  not  freeze  so 
solid  as  land  that  is  wet,  and  so  spaces  are  left  for  the 
permeation  of  warm  air.  Again,  ice,  like  water,  is  almost 
a  nonconductor  of  heat,  and  earth  saturated  with  water 
and  frozen,  is  like  unto  it,  so  that  neither  the  warmth  of 
the  subsoil  or  surface-soil  can  be  readily  imparted  to  it. 
Dry  earth,  on  the  other  hand,  although  frozen,  is  still  a 
good  conductor,  and  readily  dissolves  at  the  first  warm 
breath  of  Spring  above,  or  the  pulsations  of  the  great  heart 
of  Nature  beneath. 


300  FARM   DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER  XYI 

POWER   OF   SOILS   TO   ABSORB    AND   RETAIN   MOISTURE. 

Why  does  not  Drainage  make  the  Land  too  Dry  ? — Adhesive  Attraction.— 
The  Finest  Soils  exert  most  Attraction. — How  much  Water  different  Soils 
hold  by  Attraction. — Capillary  Attraction,  Illustrated. — Power  to  Imbibe 
Moisture  from  the  Air. — Weight  Absorbed  by  1,000  Ibs.  in  12  Hours. — 
Dew,  Cause  of. — Dew  Point. — Cause  of  Frost. — Why  Covering  Plants 
Protects  from  Frost. — Dew  Imparts  Warmth. — Idea  that  the  Moon  Pro- 
motes Putrefaction. — Quantity  of  Dew. 

THE  first  and  most  natural  objection  made,  by  those  not 
practically  familiar  with  drainage  operations,  to  the  whole 
system  is,  that  the  drains  will  draw  out  so  much  of  the 
water  from  the  soil,  as  to  leave  it  too  dry  for  the  crops. 

If  a  cask  be  filled  with  round  stones,  or  with  musket 
balls,  or  with  large  shot,  and  with  water  to  the  surface, 
and  then  an  opening  be  made  at  the  bottom  of  the  cask, 
all  the  water,  except  a  thin  film  adhering  to  the  surface 
of  the  vessel  and  its  contents,  will  immediately  run  out. 

If  now,  the  same  cask  be  filled  with  the  dried  soil  of 
any  cultivated  field,  and  this  soil  be  saturated  with  water, 
a  part  only  of  the  water  can  be  drawn  out  at  the  bottom. 
The  soil  in  the  cask  will  remain  moist,  retaining  more  or 
less  of  the  water,  according  to  the  character  of  the  soil. 

Why  does  not  the  water  all  run  out  of  the  soil,  and 
leave  it  dry  ?  An  answer  may  be  found  in  the  books, 
which  is,  in  reality,  but  a  re-statement  of  the  fact,  by 
reference  to  a  principle  of  nature,  by  no  means  intelligible 
to  finite  minds,  called  attraction.  If  two  substances  are 


POWER   TO   ABSORB   MOISTURE.  301 

placed  in  close  contact  with  each  other,  they  cannot  be 
separated  without  a  certain  amount  of  force. 

"  If  we  wet  the  surfaces  of  two  pieces  of  glass,  and  place  them 
in  contact,  we  shall  find  that  they  adhere  to  each  other,  and  that,  in- 
dependently of  the  effect  of  the  pressure  of  the  air,  they  oppose  con- 
siderable resistance  to  any  attempt  to  separate  them.  Again,  if  we  bring 
any  substance,  as  the  blade  of  a  knife,  in  contact  with  water,  the  water 
adheres  to  the  blade  in  a  thin  film,  and  remains,  by  what  is  termed 
adhesive  attraction.  This  property  resides  in  the  surface  of  bodies, 
and  is  in  proportion  to  the  extent  of  its  surface. 

"  Soils  possess  this  property,  in  common  with  all  other  bodies,  and 
possess  it,  in  a  greater  or  less  degree,  according  to  the  aggregate  surface 
which  the  particles  of  a  given  bulk  present.  Thus,  clay  may,  by  means 
of  kneading,  be  made  to  contain  so  large  a  quantity  of  water,  as  that, 
at  last,  it  may  almost  be  supposed  to  be  divided  into  infinitesimally 
thin  layers,  having  each  a  film  of  water  adhering  to  it  on  either  side. 
Such  soils,  again,  as  sand  or  chalk,  the  particles  of  which  are  coarser 
exert  a  less  degree  of  adhesive  attraction  for  water." — Cyc.  of  Ag..  695. 

Professor  Schiibler,  of  Tubingen,  gives  the  results  of 
experiments  upon  this  point.  By  dropping  water  upon 
dried  soils  of  different  kinds,  until  it  began  to  drop  from 
the  bottom,  he  found  that  100  Ibs.  of  soil  held  by  attrac- 
tion, as  follows  : 

Sand 25  Ibs.  of  water. 

Loamy  Soil 40  " 

ClayLoam 50  " 

Pure  Clay 70  " 

Mr.  Shedd,  of  Boston,  gives  the  result  of  a  recent  ex- 
periment of  his  own  on  this  point.  He  writes  thus  : 

"  I  have  made  an  experiment  with  a  soil  of  ordinary  tenacity,  to 
ascertain  how  much  water  it  would  hold  in  suspension,  with  the  follow- 
ing result :  One  cubic  foot  of  earth  held  0.4826434  cubic  feet  of  water : 
three  feet  of  dry  soil  of  that  character  will  receive  1.44793  ft.  vertical 
depth  of  water  before  any  drains  off.  or  seventeen  and  three-quarter 
inches,  equal  to  nearly  six  month's  rain-fall.  One  cubic  foot  of  earth 
held  3.53713  gallons  of  water,  or  if  drains  are  three  feet  deep,  one 
square  foot  of  surface  would  receive  10.61  gallons  of  water,  before 


302  FARM   DKAINAGE. 

saturation.  Other  soils  would  sustain  a  greater  or  less  quantity, 
according  to  their  character." 

Besides  this  power  of  retaining  water,  when  brought 
into  contact  with  it,  the  soil  has,  in  common  with  other 
porous  bodies,  the  power  of  drawing  up  moisture,  or  of 
absorbing  it,  independent  of  gravitation,  or  of  the  weight 
of  the  water  which  aids  to  carry  it  down  into  the  soil. 
This  power  is  called  capillary  attraction,  from  the  hair- 
like  tubes  used  in  early  experiments.  If  very  minute 
tubes,  open  at  both  ends,  are  placed  upright,  partly  im- 
mersed in  a  vessel  of  water,  the  water  rises  in  the  tubes 
perceptibly  higher  than  its  general  surface  in  the  vessel. 
A  sponge,  from  which  water  has  been  pressed  out,  held 
over  a  basin  of  water,  so  that  its  lower  part  touches  the 
surface,  draws  up  the  water  till  it  is  saturated.  A  com- 
mon flower-pot,  with  a  perforated  bottom,  and  filled  with 
dry  earth,  placed  in  a  saucer  of  water,  best  illustrates  this 
point.  The  water  rises  at  once  to  a  common  level  in  the 
pot  and  outside.  This  represents  the  water-table  in  the 
soil  of  our  fields.  But,  from  this  level,  water  will  con- 
tinue to  rise  in  the  earth  in  the  pot,  till  it  is  moistened  to 
the  surface,  and  this,  too,  is  by  capillary  attraction. 

The  tendency  of  water  to  ascend,  however,  is  not  the 
same  in  all  soils.  In  coarse  gravelly  soils,  the  principle 
may  not  operate  perfectly,  because  the  interstices  are  too 
large,  the  weight  of  the  water  overcoming  the  power  of 
attraction,  as  in  the  cask  of  stones  or  shot.  In  very  fine 
clay,  on  the  other  hand,  although  it  be  absorptive  and  reten- 
tive of  water,  yet  the  particles  are  so  fine,  and  the  spaces 
between  them  so  small,  that  this  attraction,  though  sure, 
would  be  slow  in  operation.  A  loamy,  light,  well  pul- 
verized soil,  again,  would  perhaps  furnish  the  best  medium 
for  the  diffusion  of  water  in  this  way. 

It  is  impossible  to  set  limits  to  so  uncertain  a  power  as 
this  of  capillary  attraction.  We  see  that  in  minute  glass 


POWER   TO    ABSORB    MOISTURE.  303 

tubes,  it  has  power  to  raise  water  a  small  fraction  of  an 
inch  only.  We  see  that,  in  the  sponge  or  flower- pot,  it 
has  power  to  raise  water  many  inches;  and  we  know  that, 
in  the  soil,  moisture  is  thus  attracted  upwards  several  feet. 
By  observing  a  saturated  sponge  in  a  saucer,  we  shall  see 
that,  although  moist  at  the  top,  it  holds  more  and  more 
water  to  the  bottom.  So,  in  the  saturated  earth  in  a  flower- 
pot, the  earth,  merely  moist  at  the  surface,  is  wet  mud 
just  above  the  water-table.  So,  in  drained  land,  the  capil- 
lary force  which  retained  the  water  in  the  soil  to  the 
height  of  a  few  inches,  is  no  longer  able  to  sustain  it,  when 
the  height  is  increased  to  feet,  and  a  portion  descends  into 
the  drain,  leaving  the  surface  comparatively  dry. 

Thus,  it  would  seem,  that  draining  may  modify  the  force 
of  capillary  attraction,  while  it  cannot  affect  that  of  ad- 
hesive attraction.  It  may  drain  off  surplus  water,  but, 
unaided,  can  never  render  any  arable  land  too  dry.  If, 
however,  the  surplus  water  be  speedily  taken  off  by 
drainage,  and  the  capillary  attraction  be  greatly  impaired, 
so  that  little  water  is  drawn  upwards  by  its  force,  will  not 
the  soil  soon  become  parched  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  or,  in 
other  words,  by  evaporation  ? 

Without  stopping  in  this  place,  to  speak  of  evaporation, 
we  may  answer,  that,  in  our  burning  Summer  heat,  the 
earth  would  be  burnt  up  too  dry  for  any  vegetation,  were 
it  not  for  a  beneficent  arrangement  of  Providence,  which 
counteracts  the  effect  of  the  sun's  rays,  and  of  which  we 
will  now  make  mention. 

Power  to  imbibe  moisture  from  the  air.  —  We  have 
spoken,  in  another  place,  of  the  absorption,  by  drained  land, 
of  fertilizing  substances  from  the  atmosphere.  Dry  soil 
has,  too,  a  wonderful  power  of  deriving  moisture  from  the 
same  source. 

"  When  a  portion  of  soil,"  says  Johnston,  "  is  dried  carefully  ovei 
boiling  water,  or  in  an  oven,  and  is  then  spread  out  upon  a  sheet  of 


304  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

paper  in  the  open  air,  it  will  gradually  drink  in  watery  vapor  from  the 
atmosphere,  and  will  thus  increase  in  weight. 

"  In  hot  climates  and  in  dry  seasons,  this  property  is  of  great  import- 
ance, restoring  as  it  does,  to  the  thirsty  soil,  and  bringing  within  the 
reach  of  plants,  a  portion  of  the  moisture,  which,  during  the  day,  they 
had  so  copiously  exhaled." 

Different  soils  possess  this  power  in  unequal  degrees. 
During  a  night  of  12  hours,  and  when  the  air  is  moist, 
according  to  Schiibler,  1000  Ibs.  of  perfectly  dry 

Quartz  sand  will  gain 0  Ibs. 

Calcareous  sand 2  " 

Loamy  soil 21  " 

Clay  loam 25  " 

Pure  agricultural  clay 27  l 

Sir  Humphrey  Davy  found,  that  the  power  of  attraction 
for  water,  generally  proved  an  index  to  the  agricultural 
value  of  soils.  It  is,  however,  but  one  means  of  judging 
of  their  value.  Peaty  soils  and  strong  clays  are  very  ab- 
sorbent of  water,  although  not  always  the  best  for  culti- 
vation. 

Sir  H.  Davy  gives  the  following  results  of  his  experi- 
ments. When  made  perfectly  dry,  1000  Ibs.  of  a 

Very  fertile  soil  from  East  Lothian,  gained  in  an  hour 18  Ibs, 

Very  fertile  soil  from  Somersetshire 16     " 

Soil,  worth  455.,  (rent)  from  Essex 13     '• 

Sandy  soil,  worth  285.,  from  Essex 11     " 

Coarse  sand,  worth  155. 8     " 

Soil  of  Bagshot  Heath 3     :< 

"  This  sort  of  attraction,  however,"  suggests  a  writer  in  the  Cyclopedia 
of  Agriculture,  "  it  may  be  believed,  depends  upon  other  causes  besides 
the  attraction  of  adhesion.  The  power  of  attraction,  which  certain  sub- 
stances exhibit  for  the  vapor  of  water,  is  more  akin  to  the  force  which 
enables  certain  porous  bodies  to  absorb  and  retain  many  times  their 
volume  of  the  different  gases  •  as  charcoal,  of  ammonia,  of  which  it  is 
said  to  absorb  ninety  times  its  own  bulk." 

Here  again,  we  find  in  the  soil,  an  inexplicable  but  be- 


POWER   TO   ABSOEB    MOISTURE.  305 

neficent  power,  by  which  it  supplies  itself  with  moisture 
when  it  most  needs  it. 

Warm  air  is  capable  of  holding  more  vapor  than  cooler 
air,  and  the  very  heat  of  Summer  supplies  it  with  moisture 
by  evaporation  from  land  and  water.  As  the  air  is  cooled, 
at  nightfall,  it  must  somewhere  deposit  the  water,  which 
the  hand  of  the  Unseen  presses  out  of  it  by  condensation. 

The  sun-dried  surface  of  fertile,  well  drained  soil,  is  in 
precisely  the  condition  best  adapted  to  receive  the  refresh- 
ing draught,  and  convey  it  to  the  thirsting  plants. 

We  may  form  some  estimate  of  the  vast  amount  ab- 
sorbed by  an  acre  of  land  in  a  dry  season,  by  considering 
that  the  clay  loam,  in  the  above  statement,  absorbed  in 
12  hours  a  fortieth  part  of  its  own  weight. 

OF  DEW. 

Dew  is  one  of  the  most  ordinary  forms  in  which  mois- 
ture is  deposited  in  and  upon  the  soil,  in  its  natural  con- 
ditions. The  absorbent  power  of  artificially-dried  soils,  as 
has  been  seen,  seems  to  depend  much  upon  their  chemical 
constitution ;  and  that  topic  has  been  considered,  without 
special  reference  to  the  comparative  temperature  of  the 
soil  and  atmosphere.  The  soil,  as  we  have  seen,  absorbs 
moisture  from  the  air,  when  both  are  of  the  same  temper- 
ature, the  amount  absorbed  depending  also  upon  the  phys- 
ical condition  of  the  soil,  and  upon  the  comparative 
moisture  of  the  soil  and  atmosphere. 

The  deposition  of  dew  results  from  a  different  law.  All 
bodies  throw  off,  at  all  times,  heat,  by  radiation,  as  it  is 
termed.  In  the  day-time,  the  sun's  rays  warm  the  earth, 
and  the  air  is  heated  by  it,  and  that  nearest  the  surface  is 
heated  most.  Evaporation  is  constantly  going  on  from 
the  earth  and  water,  and  loads  the  air  with  vapor,  and  the 
warmer  the  air,  the  more  vapor  it  will  hold. 

When  the  sun  goes  down,  the  earth  still  continues  tc 


306  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

throw  off  heat  by  radiation,  and  soon  becomes  cooler  than 
the  air,  unless  the  same  amount  of  heat  be  returned,  by 
radiation  from  other  surfaces.  Becoming  cooler  than  the 
air,  the  soil  or  plants  cool  the  air  which  comes  in  contact 
with  them  ;  and  thus  cooled  to  a  certain  point,  the  air  can- 
not hold  all  the  vapor  which  it  absorbed  while  warmer, 
and  part  of  it  is  deposited  upon  the  soil,  plant,  or  other 
cool  surface.  This  is  dew  ;  and  the  temperature  at  which 
the  air  is  saturated  with  vapor,  is  called  the  dew-point. 
If  saturated  at  a  given  temperature  with  vapor,  the  air, 
when  cooled  below  this  point,  must  part  with  a  portion  of 
the  vapor,  in  some  way;  in  the  form  of  rain  or  mist,  if  in 
the  air ;  in  the  form  of  dew,  if  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 

If,  however,  other  surfaces,  at  night,  radiate  as  much 
heat  back  to  the  earth  as  it  throws  off,  the  surface  of  the 
earth  is  not  thus  cooled,  and  there  is  no  dew.  Clouds 
radiate  heat  to  the  earth,  and,  therefore,  there  is  less  dew 
in  cloudy  than  in  clear  nights.  If  the  temperature  of  the 
earth  sinks  below  the  freezing-point,  the  aqueous  vapor  is 
frozen,  and  is  then  called  frost. 

To  radiate  back  a  portion  of  the  heat  thus  thrown  off  by 
the  soil  and  plants,  gardeners  cover  their  tender  plants  and 
vines  with  mats  or  boards,  or  even  with  thin  cloth,  and 
thus  protect  them  from  frost.  If  the  covering  touch  the 
plants,  they  are  often  frozen,  the  heat  being  conducted  off, 
by  contact,  to  the  covering,  and  thence  radiated.  Dew 
then  is  an  effect,  but  not  a  cause,  of  cold.  It  imparts 
warmth,  because  it  can  be  deposited  only  on  objects  cooler 
than  itself. 

It  has  been  supposed  by  many  that  the  light  of  the  moon 
promotes  putrefaction.  Pliny  and  Plutarch  both  affirm 
this  to  be  true.  Dew,  by  supplying  moisture  in  the  warm 
season,  aids  this  process  of  decay.  We  have  seen  that 
dew  is  most  abundant  in  clear  nights ;  and  although  all 
clear  nights  are  not  moonlight  nights,  yet  all  moonlight 


POWER   TO    ABSORB   MOISTURE.  307 

nights  are  clear  nights ;  and  this,  perhaps,  furnishes  suffi- 
cient grounds  for  this  belief,  as  to  the  influence  of  the 
moon. 

The  quantity  of  dew  deposited  is  not  easily  measured. 
It  has,  however,  been  estimated  by  Dr.  Dalton,  to  amount, 
in  England,  to  five  inches  of  water  in  a  year,  or  500  tons 
to  the  acre,  equal  to  about  one  quarter  of  our  rain-fall 
during  the  six  summer  months! 

O 

Deep  and  well-pulverized  soils  attract  much  more 
moisture,  in  every  form,  from  the  atmosphere,  than  shal- 
low and  compact  soils.  They,  in  fact,  expose  a  much 
larger  surface  to  the  air.  This  is  the  reason  why  stirring 
the  ground,  even  in  the  Summer  drought,  refreshes  our 
fields  of,  Indian  corn. 


308  FARM   DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER    XVII. 

INJURY    OF   LAND   BY    DRAINAGE. 

Most  Land  cannot  be  Over-drained. — Nature  a  Deep  drainer. — Over-draining 
of  Peaty  Soils. — Lincolnshire  Fens;  Visit  to  them  in  1857. — 56  Bushels  of 
Wheat  to  the  Acre. — Wet  Meadows  subside  by  Drainage. — Conclusions. 

Is  there  no  danger  of  draining  land  too  much  ?  May 
not  land  be  over-drained  ?  These  are  questions  often  and 
very  naturally  asked,  and  which  deserve  careful  consider- 
ation. The  general  answer  would  be  that  there  is  no 
danger  to  be  apprehended  from  over-draining;  that  no 
water  will  run  out  of  land  that  would  be  of  advantage  to 
our  cultivated  crops  by  being  retained.  In  other  words, 
soils  generally  hold,  by  capillary  attraction,  all  the 
moisture  that  is  of  any  advantage  to  the  crops  cultivated 
on  them ;  and  the  water  of  drainage  would,  if  retained 
for  want  of  outlets,  be  stagnant,  and  produce  more  evil 
than  good. 

We  say  this  is  generally  true ;  but  there  are  said  to  be 
exceptional  cases,  which  it  is  proposed  to  consider.  If  we 
bear  in  mind  the  condition  of  most  soils  in  Summer,  we 
shall  see  that  this  apprehension  of  over-draining  is  ground- 
less. The  fear  is,  that  crops  will  suffer  in  time  of  drought, 
if  thoroughly  drained.  Now,  we  know  that,  in  almost  all 
New  England,  the  water-table  is  many  feet  below  the  sur- 
face. Our  wells  indicate  pretty  accurately  where  the 
water-table  is,  and  drains,  unless  cut  as  low  as  the  surface 


INJURY   BY    DRAINAGE.  309 

of  the  water  m  the  wells,  would  not  run  a  drop  of  water 
in  Summer.  • 

Our  farmers  dig  their  wells  twenty,  and  even  fifty,  feet 
deep,  and  expect  that,  every  Summer,  the  water  will  sink 
to  nearly  that  depth ;  but  they  have  no  apprehension  that 
their  crops  will  become  dry,  because  the  water  is  not  kept 
up  to  within  three  feet  of  the  surface. 

The  fact  is,  that  Nature  drains  thoroughly  the  greater 
portion  of  all  our  lands ;  so  that  artificial  drainage,  though 
it  may  remove  surplus  water  from  them  more  speedily 
in  Spring,  cannot  make  them  more  dry  in  Summer.  And 
what  thus  happens  naturally,  on  most  of  the  land,  with- 
out injury,  cannot  be  a  dangerous  result  to  effect  by 
drainage  on  lands  of  similar  character.  By  thorough- 
drainage,  we  endeavor  to  make  lands  which  have  an  im- 
pervious or  very  retentive  subsoil  near  the  surface,  suffi- 
ciently open  to  allow  the  surplus  water  to  pass  off,  as  it 
does  naturally  on  our  most  productive  upland. 

OVEK-DRAINING  OF  PEATY   SOILS. 

No  instance  has  yet  been  made  public  in  America,  of 
the  injury  of  peat  lands  by  over-drainage ;  but  there  is  a 
general  impression  among  English  writers,  that  peat  soils 
are  often  injured  in  this  way.  The  Lincolnshire  Fens  are 
cited  by  them,  as  illustrations  of  the  fact,  that  these  lands 
do  not  require  deep  drainage. 

Mr.  Pusey  says,  "Every  one  who  is  practically  ac- 
quainted with  moory  land,  knows  that  such  land  may  be 
easily  over-drained,  so  that  the  soil  becomes  dusty  or 
husTcy^  as  it  is  called — that  is,  like  a  dry  sponge — the 
white  crops  flag,  and  the  turnip  leaves  turn  yellow  in  a 
long  drought." 

These  Fens  contain  an  immense  extent  of  land.  The 
Great  Level  of  the  Fens,  it  is  said,  contains  600,000  acres. 


310  FAEM   DRAINAGE. 

Much  of  this  was  formerly  covered  by  the  tides,  and  all 
of  it,  as  the  name,  indicates,  was  of  a  marshy  character. 
The  water  being  excluded  by  embankments  against  the 
sea  and  rivers,  and  pumped  out  by  steam  engines,  and 
the  land  under-drained  generally  with  tiles,  so  that  the 
height  of  the  water  is  under  the  control  of  the  proprietors, 
grave  disputes  have  arisen  as  to  the  proper  amount  of 
drainage. 

An  impression  has  heretofore  prevailed,  that  these  lands 
would  be  too  dry  if  the  water  were  pumped  out,  so  as  to 
reduce  the  water-table  more  than  a  foot  or  two  below  the 
surface,  but  this  idea  is  now  controverted. 

In  July  1857,  in  company  with  three  of  the  best  farm- 
ers in  Lincolnshire,  the  writer  visited  the  Fens,  and  care- 
fully examined  the  crops  and  drainage.  We  passed  a  day 
with  one  of  the  proprietors,  who  gave  us  some  information 
upon  the  point  in  question.  He  stated,  that  in  general,  the 
occupants  of  this  land  entertain  the  opinion,  that  the 
crops  would  be  ruined  by  draining  to  the  depth  of  four 
feet.  So  strongly  was  he  impressed  with  the  belief  that 
a  deeper  drainage  was  desirable,  that  he  had  enclosed  his 
own  estate  with  separate  embankments,  and  put  up  a  steam- 
engine,  and  pumped  out  the  water  to  the  depth  of  four 
feet,  while  from  the  land  all  around  him,  it  is  pumped  out 
only  a  foot  and  a  half  below  the  surface,  though  in  Sum- 
mer it  may  sometimes  fall  somewhat  lower. 

The  crops  on  this  land  were  astonishing.  Our  friends 
estimated  that  the  wheat  then  growing  and  nearly  ripe, 
would  yield  fifty-six  bushels  to  the  acre.  Although  this 
was  considered  a  very  dry  season,  the  crops  on  the  land 
of  our  host  were  fully  equal  to  the  best  upon  the  Fens. 

The  soil  upon  that  part  of  the  Fens  is  now  a  fine  black 
loam  of  twelve  or  eighteen  inches  depth,  resting  upon 
clay.  Upon  other  portions,  the  soil  is  of  various  depth 
and  character,  resting  sometimes  upon  gravel. 


IN J HEY    BY    DRAINAGE. 

Attention  is  called  to  these  facts  here,  to  show  that  the 
common  impression  that  these  lands  will  not  bear  deep 
drainage,  is  controverted  among  the  occupants  themselves, 
and  may  prove  to  be  one  of  those  errors  which  becomes 
traditional,  we  hardly  know  how. 

Most  peat  meadows,  in  New  England,  when  first  re- 
lieved of  stagnant  water,  are  very  light  and  spongy.  The 
soil  is  filled  with  acids  which  require  to  be  neutralized 
by  an  application  of  liine,  or  what  is  cheaper  and  equally 
effectual,  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  These  soils, 
when  the  water  is  suddenly  drawn  out  of  them,  retain 
their  bulk  for  a  time,  and  are  too  porous  and  unsubstantial 
for  cultivation.  A  season  or  two  will  cure  this  evil,  in 
many  cases.  The  soil  will  become  more  compact,  and 
will  often  settle  down  many  inches.  It  is  necessary  to 
bear  this  in  mind  in  adjusting  the  drains,  because  a  four- 
foot  drain,  when  laid,  may,  by  the  mere  subsidence  of  the 
land,  become  a  three-foot  drain. 

A  hasty  judgment,  in  any  case,  that  the  land  is  over- 
drained,  should  be  suspended  until  the  soil  has  acquired 
compactness  by  its  own  weight,  and  by  the  ameliorating 
effect  of  culture  and  the  elements. 

Mr.  Denton,  alluding  to  the  opinion  of  "many  intelli- 
gent men,  that  low  meadow-land  should  be  treated  differ- 
ently to  upland  pasture,  and  upland  pasture  differently  to 
arable  land,"  says,  "  My  own  observations  bring  me  to 
the  conclusion,  that  it  is  not  possible  to  lay  pasture-land 
too  dry;  for  I  have  invariably  remarked,  during  the  recent 
dry  Summer  and  Autumn  particularly,  that  both  in  low- 
land meadows,  and  upland  pastures,  those  lands  which 
have  been  most  thoroughly  drained  by  deep  and  frequent 
drains,  are  those  that  have  preserved  the  freshest  and 
most  profitable  herbage." 

"While,  therefore,  we  have  much  doubt  whether  any 
land,  high  or  low,  can  be  over-drained  for  general  cultiva- 


312  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

tion,  it  is  probable  that  a  less  expensive  mode  of  drainage 
may  be  sometimes  expedient  for  grass  alone. 

While  we  believe  that,  in  general,  even  peat  soils  may 
be  safely  drained  to  the  same  depth  with  other  soil,  there 
seems  to  be  a  well-founded  opinion  that  they  may  fre- 
quently be  rendered  productive  by  a  less  thorough  system. 

The  only  safety  for  us,  is  in  careful  experiment  with  our 
own  lands,  which  vary  so  much  in  character  and  location, 
that  no  precise  rules  can  be  prescribed  for  their  treat- 
ment. 


OBSTRUCTION    OF   DRAINS.  313 


CHAPTER  XVIH. 

OBSTRUCTION      OF     DRAINS. 

Tiles  will  fill  up,  unless  irell  laid.— Obstruction  by  Sand  or  Silt.— Obstruc- 
tions at  the  Outlet  from  Frogs,  Moles,  Action  of  Frost,  and  Cattle. — Obstruc- 
tion by  Boots. — Willow,  Ash,  &c.,  Trees  capricious. — Roots  enter  Peren- 
nial Streams. — Obstruction  by  Mangold  Wurtzel. — Obstruction  by  Per- 
Oxide  of  Iron. — How  Prevented. — Obstruction  by  the  Joints  Filling. — 
No  Danger  with  Two-Inch  Pipes. — Water  through  the  Pores. — Collars. — 
How  to  Detect  Obstructions. 

BUT  won't  these  tiles  get  filled  up  and  stopped?  asks 
almost  every  inquirer  on  the  subject  of  tile  draining. 

Certainly,  they  will,  if  not  laid  with  great  care,  and 
with  all  proper  precautions  against  obstructions.  It  can- 
not be  too  often  repeated,  that  tile-drainage  requires 
science,  and  knowledge,  and  skill,  as  well  as  money ;  and 
no  man  should  go  into  it  blindfold,  or  with  faith  in  his 
innate  perceptions  of  right.  If  he  does,  his  education  will 
be  expensive. 

It  is  proposed  to  mention  all  the  various  modes  by 
which  tiles  have  been  known  to  be  obstructed,  and  to 
suggest  how  the  danger  of  failure,  by  means  of  them,  may 
be  obviated. 

Let  not  enterprising  readers  be  alarmed  at  such  an  array 
of  difficulties,  for  the  more  conspicuous  they  become,  the 
less  is  the  danger  from  them. 

Obstruction  ~by  Sand  or  Silt.    Probably,  more  drains  are 
rendered  worthless,  by  being  filled  up  with  earthy  matter, 
which  passes  with  water  through  the  joints  x>f  the  tiles, 
than  by  every  other  cause. 
14 


314  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

Fine  sand  will  pass  through  the  smallest  aperture,  if 
there  is  a  current  of  water  sufficient  to  move  it,  and  silt, 
or  the  fine  deposit  of  mud  or  other  earth,  which  is  held 
almost  in  solution  in  running  water,  is  even  more  insinuat- 
ing in  its  ways  than  sand, 

Very  often,  drains  are  filled  up  and  ruined  by  these 
deposits;  and,  unless  the  fall  be  considerable,  and  the 
drain  be  laid  with  even  descent,  if  earth  of  any  kind  find 
entrance,  it  must  endanger  the  permanency  of  the  work. 
To  guard  against  the  admission  of  everything  but  water, 
lay  drains  deep  enough  to  be  beyond  the  danger  of  water 
brusting  in,  in  streamlets.  Water  should  enter  the  drain 
at  the  bottom,  by  rising  to  the  level  of  the  tiles,  and 
not  by  sinking  from  the  surface  directly  to  them.  If  the 
land  is  sandy,  great  care  must  be  used.  In  draining 
through  flowing  sand,  especially  if  there  be  a  quick 
descent,  the  precaution  of  sheathing  tiles  is  resorted  to. 
That  is  done  by  putting  small  tiles  inside  of  larger  ones, 
breaking  joints  inside,  and  thus  laying  a  double  drain. 
This  is  only  necessary,  however,  in  spots  of  sand  full  of 
spring-water.  Next  best  to  this  mode,  is  the  use  of  collars 
over  the  joints,  but  these  are  not  often  used,  though  recom- 
mended for  sandy  land. 

At  least,  in  all  land  not  perfectly  sound,  be  careful  to 
secure  the  joints  in  some  way.  An  inverted  turf,  care- 
fully laid  over  the  joint,  is  oftenest  used.  Good,  clean, 
fine  gravel  is,  perhaps,  best  of  all.  Spent  tan  bark,  when 
it  is  to  be  conveniently  procured,  is  excellent,  because  it 
strains  out  the  earth,  while  it  freely  admits  water;  and  any 
particles  of  tan  that  find  entrance,  are  floated  out  upon 
the  water.  The  same  may  be  said  of  sawdust. 

To  secure  the  exit  of  earth  that  may  enter  at  the  joints, 
there  should  be  care  that  the  tiles  be  smooth  inside,  that 
they  be  laid  exactly  in  line,  and  that  there  be  a  continuous 
descent.  If  there  be  any  place  where  the  water  rises  in  the 


OBSTRUCTION   OF   DRAINS.  315 

tiles,  in  that  place,  every  particle  of  sand,  or  other 
matter  heavier  than  water,  will  be  likely  to  stop,  until  a 
barrier  is  formed,  and  the  drain  stopped. 

In  speaking  of  the  forms  of  tiles,  the  superiority  of 
rounded  openings  over  those  with  flat  bottom  has  been 
shown.  The  greater  head  of  water  in  a  round  pipe,  gives 
it  force  to  drive  before  it  all  obstructions,  and  so  tends  to 
keep  the  drain  clear. 

Obstructions  at  the  Outlet.  The  water  from  deep  drains 
is  usually  very  clear,  and  cattle  find  the  outlet  a  conve- 
nient place  to  drink  at,  and  constantly  tread  up  the  soft 
ground  there,  and  obstruct  the  flow  of  water.  All  earthy 
matter,  and  chemical  solutions  of  iron,  and  the  like,  tend 
to  accumulate  by  deposit  at  the  outlet.  Frogs  and  mice, 
and  insects  of  many  kinds,  colle.ct  about  such  places,  and 
creep  into  the  drains.  .  The  action  of  frost  in  cold  regions 
displaces  the  earth,  and  even  masonry,  if  not  well  laid ; 
and  back-water,  by  flowing  into  the  drains,  hinders  the 
free  passage  of  water. 

All  these  causes  tend  to  obstruct  drains  at  the  outlet 
If  once  stopped  there,  the  whole  pipe  becomes  filled  with 
stagnant  water,  which  deposits  all  its  earthy  matter,  and 
soon  becomes  obstructed  at  other  points,  and  so  becomes 
useless.  The  outlet  must  be  rendered  secure  from  all 
these  dangers,  at  all  seasons,  by  some  such  means  as  are 
suggested  in  the  chapter  on  the  Arrangement  of  Drains. 

Obstruction  lyy  roots.  On  the  author's  farm  in  Exeter, 
a  wooden  drain,  to  carry  off  waste  water  from  a  watering 
place,  was  laid,  with  a  triangular  opening  of  about  four 
inches.  This  was  found  to  be  obstructed  the  second  year 
after  it  was  laid ;  and  upon  taking  it  up,  it  proved  to  be 
entirely  filled  for  several  feet,  with  willow  roots,  which 
grew  like  long,  fine  grass,  thickly  matted  together,  so  as 
entirely  to  close  the  drain.  There  was  a  row  of  large 
willows  about  thirty  feet  distant,  and  as  the  drain  was  but 


316  FARM   DKAINAGE. 

about  two  feat  deep,  they  found  their  way  easily  to  it,  and 
entering  between  the  rough  joints  of  the  boards,  not  very 
carefully  fitted,  fattened  on  the  spring  water  till  they  out- 
grew their  new  house. 

A  neighbor  says,  he  never  wants  a  tree  within  ten  rods 
of  any  land  he  desires  to  plow ;  and  it  would  be  unsafe  to 
undertake  to  set  limits  to  the  extent  of  the  roots  of  trees. 
"No  crevice,  however  small,"  says  a  writer,  "is  proof 
against  the  entrance  of  the  roots  of  water-loving  trees." 

The  behavior  of  roots  is,  however,  very  capricious  in 
this  matter;  for,  while  occasional  instances  occur  of  drains 
being  obstructed  by  them,  it  is  a  very  common  thing  for 
drains  to  operate  perfectly  for  indefinite  period%  where 
they  run  through  forests  and  orchards  for  long  distances. 
They,  however,  who  lay  drains  near  to  willows  and  ashes, 
and  the  like  cold-water  drinkers,  must  do  it  at  the  peril  of 
which  they  are  warned. 

Laying  the  tiles  deep  and  with  collars  will  afford  the 
best  security  from  all  danger  of  this  kind. 

Thos.  Gisborne,  Esq.,  in  a  note  to  the  edition  of  his 
Essay  on  Drainage  published  in  1852,  says : 

"  My  own  experience  as  to  roots,  in  connection  with  deep  pipe  drain- 
ing, is  as  follows  : — I  have  never  known  roots  to  obstruct  a  pipe  through 
which  there  was  not  a  perennial  stream.  The  flow  of  water  in  Sum- 
mer and  early  Autumn  appears  to  furnish  the  attraction.  I  have  never 
discovered  that  the  roots  of  any  esculent  vegetable  have  obstructed  a 
pipe.  The  trees  which,  by  my  own  personal  observation,  I  have  found 
to  be  most  dangerous,  have  been  red  willow,  black  Italian  poplar,  alder, 
ash,  and  broad-leaved  elm.  I  have  many  alders  in  close  contiguity 
with  important  drains ;  and,  though  I  have  never  convicted  one,  I  can 
not  doubt  that  they  are  dangerous.  Oak,  and  black  and  white  thorns, 
I  have  not  detected,  nor  do  I  suspect  them.  The  guilty  trees  have,  in 
every  instance,  been  young  and  free  growing  :  I  have  never  convicted 
an  adult." 

Mangold-wurzel,  it  is  said  by  several  writers,  will  some- 
times grow  down  into  tile  drains,  even  to  the  depth  of  four 
feet,  and  entirely  obstruct  them ;  but  those  are  cases  of 


OBSTRUCTION    OF   DRAINS.  317 

very  rare  occurrence.  In  thousands  of  instances,  mangolds 
have  been  cultivated  on  drained  land,  even  where  tiles 
were  but  2-J  feet  deep,  without  causing  any  obstruction  of 
the  drains.  Any  reader  who  is  curious  in  such  matters, 
may  find  in  the  appendix  to  the  10th  Yol.  of  the  Journal 
of  the  Royal  Ag.  Soc.,  a  singular  instance  of  obstruction 
of  drains  by  the  roots  of  the  mangold,  as  well  as  instances 
of  obstructions  by  the  roots  of  trees. 

Obstruction  l>y  Per-oxide  of  Iron.  In  the  author's 
barn-cellar  is  a  watering  place,  supplied  by  a  half-inch 
lead  pipe,  from  a  spring  some  eight  rods  distant.  This  pipe 
several  times  in  a  year,  sometimes  once  a  week,  in  cold 
weather,  is  entirely  stopped.  The  stream  of  water  is  never 
much  larger  than  a  lead  pencil.  We  usually  start  it  with 
a  sort  of  syringe,  by  forcing  into  the  outlet  a  quantity  of 
water.  It  then  runs  very  thick,  and  of  the  color  of  iron 
rust,  sometimes  several  pails  full,  and  will  then  run  clear 
for  weeks  or  months,  perhaps.  In  the  tub  which  receives 
the  water,  there  is  always  a  large  deposit  of  this  same  col- 
ored substance  ;  and  along  the  street  near  by,  where  the 
water  oozes  out  of  the  bank,  there  is  this  same  appearance 
of  iron.  This  deposit  is,  in  common  language,  called  per- 
oxide of  iron,  though  this  term  is  not,  by  chemists  of  the 
present  day,  deemed  sufficiently  accurate,  and  the  word 
sesqui-oxide  is  preferred  in  scientific  works. 

Iron  exists  in  all  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  and  ia 
all  soils,  to  some  extent.  It  exists  as  protoxide  of  iron,  in 
which  one  atom  of  iron  always  combines  with  one  atom 
of  oxygen,  and  it  exists  as  sesqui-oxide  of  iron,  from  the 
Latin  sesqui,  which  means  one  and  a  half,  in  which  one 
and  a  half  atoms  of  oxygen  combine  with  one  atom  of 
iron.  The  less  accurate  term,  per-oxide,  has  been  adopted 
here,  because  it  is  found  in  general  use  by  writers  on 
drainage. 

The  the  )ry  is  that  the  iron  exists  in  the  soil,  and  is  held 


318  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

in  solution  in  water  as  a  protoxide,  and  is  converted  into 
per-oxide  by  contact  with  the  air,  either  in  the  drains  or 
at  their  outlets,  and  is  then  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the 
water. 

In  a  pipe  running  full  there  would  be,  upon  this  theory, 
no  exposure  to  the  air,  which  should  form  the  per-oxide. 
In  the  case  stated,  it  is  probable  that  the  per-oxide  is  formed 
at  the  exposed  surface  of  a  large  cask,  at  the  spring,  and 
is  carried  into  the  pipe,  as  it  is  precipitated.  Common 
drain  pipes  would  be  full  of  air,  which  might,  perhaps,  in 
a  feeble  current,  be  sufficient  to  cause  this  deposit. 

Occasionally,  cases  have  occurred  of  obstruction  from 
this  cause,  and  whenever  the  signs  of  this  deposit  are  vis- 
ible about  the  field  to  be  drained,  care  must  be  used  to 
guard  against  it  in  draining. 

To  guard  against  obstruction  from  per-oxide  of  iron, 
tiles  should  be  laid  deep,  closely  jointed  or  collared,  with 
great  care  that  the  fall  be  continuous,  and  especially  that 
there  be  a  quick  fall  at  the  junctions  of  minor  drains  with 
mains,  and  a  clear  outlet. 

Mr.  Beattie,  of  Aberdeen,  says  :  "  Before  adopting  4 
feet  drains,  I  had  much  difficulty  in  dealing  with  the  iron 
ore  which  generally  appeared  at  two  to  three  feet  from 
the  surface,  but  by  the  extra  depth  the  water  filters  off  to 
the  pipes  free  of  ore.  Occasionally,  iron  ore  is  found  at  a 
greater  depth,  but  the  floating  substance  is  then  in  most 
cases  lighter,  and  does  not  adhere  to  the  pipes  in  the  same 
way  as  that  found  near  the  surface."  Arrangements  should 
also  be  made  for  examining  the  drains  by  means  of  wells, 
and  for  flushing  them  by  holding  back  the  water  until  the 
drains  are  filled,  and  then  letting  it  suddenly  off,  or,  by 
occasionally  admitting  a  stream  of  water  at  the  upper  end, 
when  practicable,  and  thus  washing  out  the  pipes.  Mr. 
Denton  says  •  "  It  is  found  that  the  use  of  this  contrivance 


OBSTRUCTION   OF  DRAINS.  319 

for  flushing,  will  get  rid  of  the  per-oxide  of  iron,  about 
which  so  much  complaint  is  made." 

Obstruction  ly  Filling  at  the  Joints.  One  would  sup- 
pose that  tiles  might  frequently  be  prevented  from  receiv- 
ing water,  by  the  filling  up  of  the  crevices  between  them. 
If  water  poured  on  to  tiles  in  a  stream,  it  would  be  likely 
to  carry  into  these  openings  enough  earthy  matter  to  fill 
them  ;  but  the  whole  theory  of  thorough-drainage  rests 
upon  the  idea  of  slow  percolation — of  the  passage  of  water 
in  the  form  of  fine  dew,  as  it  were — through  the  motion- 
less particles  which  compose  the  soil ;  and,  if  drains  are 
properly  laid,  there  can  be  no  motion  of  particles  of  earth, 
either  into  or  towards  the  tiles.  The  water  should  soak 
through  the  ground  precisely  as  it  does  through  a  wet 
cloth. 

In  an  article  in  the  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Arts, 
published  in  1855,  Mr.  Thomas  Arkell  states  that  in  1846 
he  had  drained  a  few  acres  with  \\  inch  pipes,  about  three 
feet  deep,  and  21  to  25  feet  apart.  The  drains  acted  well, 
and  the  land  was  tolerably  dry  and  healthy  for  the  first 
few  ^ears;  but  afterwards,  in  wet  seasons,  it  was  very  wet, 
and  appeared  full  of  water,  like  undrained  land,  although 
at  the  time  all  the  drains  wrere  running,  but  very  slowly. 
His  conclusion  was  that  mud  had  entered  the  crevices,  and 
stopped  the  water  out.  He  says  he  has  known  other  per- 
sons, who  had  used  small  pipes,  who  had  suffered  in  the 
same  way.  There  are  many  persons  still  in  England,  who 
are  so  apprehensive  on  this  point,  that  they  continue  to 
use  horse-shoe  tiles,  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called, 
"  tops  and  bottoms,"  which  admit  water  more  freely  along 
the  joints. 

The  most  skillful  engineers,  however,  decidedly  prefer 
round  pipes,  but  recommend  that  none  smaller  than  one- 
and-a-half-inch  be  used,  and  prefer  two-inch  to  any  smaller 
size.  The  circumference  of  a  two-inch  pipe  is. not  far 


320  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

from  nine  inches,  while  that  of  a  one-inch  pipe,  of  com- 
mon thickness,  is  about  half  that,  so  that  the  opening  is 
twice  as  extensive  in  the  two-inch,  pipes  as  in  the  one-inch 
pipe. 

The  ascertained  instances  of  the  obstruction  of  pipes,  by 
excluding  the  water  from  the  joints,  are  very  few.  No 
doubt  that  clay,  puddled  in  upon  the  tiles  when  laid,  might 
have  this  effect ;  but  they  who  have  experience  in  tile- 
drainage,  will  bear  witness  that  there  is  far  more  difficulty 
in  excluding  sand  and  mud,  than  there  is  in  admitting 
water. 

It  is  thought,  by  some  persons,  that  sufficient  water  to 
drain  land  may  be  admitted  through  the  pores  of  the  tiles. 
We  have  no  such  faith.  The  opinion  of  Mr.  Parkes,  that 
about  500  times  as  much  water  enters  at  the  crevices  be- 
tween each  pair  of  tiles,  as  is  absorbed  through  the  tiles 
themselves,  we  think  to  be  far  nearer  the  truth. 

Collars  have  a  great  tendency  to  prevent  the  closing  up 
of  the  crevices  between  tiles ;  but  injuries  to  drains  laid 
at  proper  depths,  with  two-inch  pipes,  even  without  collars, 
must  be  very  rare.  Indeed,  no  single  case  of  a  drain  ob- 
structed in  this  way,  when  laid  four  feet  deep,  has  yet 
come  within  our  reading  or  observation,  and  it  is  rather 
as  a  possible,  than  even  a  probable,  cause  of  failure,  that 
it  has  been  mentioned. 

HOW    TO    DETECT   OBSTRUCTIONS    IN    DRAINS. 

"When  a  drain  is  entirely  obstructed,  if  there  is  a  con- 
siderable flow  of  water,  and  the  ground  is  much  descend- 
ing, the  water  will  at  once  press  through  the  joints  of  the 
pipes,  and  show  itself  at  the  surface.  By  thrusting  down 
a  bar  along  the  course  of  the  drain,  the  place  of  the  ob- 
struction will  be  readily  determined  ;  for  the  water  will,  at 
the  point  of  greatest  pressure,  burst  up  in  the  hole  made 
by  the  bar,  like  a  spring,  while  below  the  point  of  obstruc- 


OBSTRUCTION    OF   DRAINS,  321 

tion,  there  will  be  no  upward  pressure  of  the  water,  and 
above  it,  the  pressure  will  be  less  the  farther  we  go. 

The  point  being  determined,  it  is  the  work  of  but  few 
minutes  to  dig  down  upon  the  drain,  remove  carefully  a 
few  pipes,  and  take  out  the  frog,  or  mouse,  or  the  broken 
tile,  if  such  be  the  cause  of  the  difficulty.  If  silt  or  earth 
has  caused  the  obstruction,  it  is  probably  because  of  a  de- 
pression in  the  line  of  the  drain,  or  a  defect  in  some  junc- 
tion with  other  drains,  and  this  may  require  the  taking  up 
of  more  or  less  of  the  pipes. 

If  there  be  but  little  fall  in  the  drains,  the  obstruction 
will  not  be  so  readily  found ;  but  the  effect  of  the  water 
will  soon  be  observed  at  the  surface,  both  in  keeping  the 
soil  wet,  and  in  chilling  the  vegetation  upon  it.  If  pro- 
per peep-holes  have  been  provided,  the  place  of  any  ob- 
struction may  readily  be  determined,  at  a  glance  into 
them. 

Upon  our  own  land,  we  have  had  two  or  three  instances 
of  obstruction  by  sand,  very  soon  after  the  tiles  were  laid, 
and  always  at  the  junction  of  drains  imperfectly  secured 
with  bricks,  before  we  had  procured  proper  branch-pipes 
for  the  purpose. 

A  little  experience  will  enable  the  proprietor  at  once  to 
detect  any  failure  of  his  drains,  and  to  apply  the  proper 
remedy.  Obstructions  from  silt  and  sand  are  much  more 
likely  to  occur  during  the  first  season  after  the  drains  are 
laid,  than  afterwards,  because  the  earth  is  loose  about  the 
pipes,  and  more  liable  to  be  washed  into  the  joints,  thai* 
after  it  has  become  compact. 

On  the  whole,  we  believe  the  danger  to  tile-drains,  of 
obstruction,  is  very  little,  provided  good  tiles  are  used,  and 
proper  care  is  exercised  in  laying  them. 


14* 


322  FARM   DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTEK  XIX. 

DRAINAGE   OF   STIFF   CLAYS.. 

Clay  not  impervious,  or  it  could  not  be  wet  and  dried. — Puddling,  what  is. 
— Water  will  stand  over  Drains  on  Puddled  Soil. — Cracking  of  Clays  by 
Drying. — Drained  Clays  improve  by  time. — Passage  of  Water  through 
Clay  makes  it  permeable. — Experiment  by  Mr.  Pettibone,  of  Vermont. — 
Pressure  of  Water  in  saturated  Soil. 

V 

IT  is  a  common  impression  that  clay  is  impervious  to 
water,  and  that,  therefore,  a  clay  soil  cannot  be  drained, 
especially  by  deep  under-drains.  A  moment's  reflection 
will  satisfy  any  one  that  such  land  is  not  absolutely  im- 
pervious. We  find  such  land  is  wet  in  Spring,  at  any 
depth  ;  and,  in  the  latter  part  of  Summer,  we  find  it  com- 
paratively dry.  How  comes  it  wet,  at  any  time,  if  water 
does  not  go  into  it  ?  And  how  comes  it  dry,  at  any  time, 
if  water  does  not  come  out  of  it  ? 

In  treating  of  the  power  of  the  soil  to  absorb  moisture, 
we  have  shown  that  a  clay  soil  will  absorb  more  than 
half  its  weight  and  bulk  of  water,  and  that  it  holds  more 
water  than  any  other  soil,  with,  perhaps,  the  single  excep- 
tion of  peat. 

The  facts,  however,  that  clay  may  be  wet,  and  may  be 
dried,  and  that  it  readily  absorbs  large  quantities  of 
water,  though  they  prove  conclusively  that  it  is  not  im- 
pervious to  water,  yet  do  not  prove  that  water  will  pass 
through  it  with  sufficient  rapidity  to  answer  the  practical 
purposes  of  drainage  for  agriculture.  This  point  can  only 
be  satisfactorily  determined  by  experiment.  It  is  not  neces- 
sary, however,  that  each  farmer  should  try  the  experiment 


DRAINAGE   OF   CLAYS.  323 

for  himself;  because,  although  we  are  very  apt  to  think  our 
own  case  an  exception  to  all  general  rules,  it  is  not  really 
probable  that  any  new  kind  of  clay  will  be  discovered 
hereafter,  that  is  so  different  from  all  other  clay  that  is 
known,  that  established  principles  will  not  apply  to  it. 
So  far  as  our  own  observation  extends,  owners  of  clay 
farms  always  over-estimate  the  difficulty  of  draining  their 
land.  There  are  certain  notorious  facts  with  regard  to 
clay,  which  mislead  the  judgment  of  men  on  this  point. 
One  of  these  facts  is,  that  clay  is  used  for  stopping  water, 
by  the  process  called  puddling.  Puddled  clay  is  used 
for  the  bottom  of  ponds,  and  of  canals,  and  of  reservoirs, 
and,  for  such  purposes,  is  regarded  as  nearly,  or  quite 
impervious. 

We  see  that,  on  our  clay  fields,  water  stands  upon  the 
surface,  especially  in  the  ruts  of  wheels,  and  on  headlands 
much  trodden,  late  in  the  season,  and  when,  in  other 
places,  it  has  disappeared.  This  is  due,  also,  to  puddling. 

Puddling  is  merely  the  working  of  wet  clay,  or  other 
soil,  by  beating,  or  treading,  or  stirring,  until  its  particles 
are  so  finely  divided  that  water  has  an  exceedingly  slow 
passage  between  them,  with  ordinary  pressure.  We  see 
the  effect  of  this  operation  on  common  highways,  where 
water  often  stands  for  many  days  in  puddles,  because  the 
surface  has  been  ground  so  fine,  and  rendered  so  compact, 
by  wheels  and  horses,  that  the  water  cannot  find  passage. 
Tliis,  however,  is  not  the  natural  condition  of  any  clay ; 
nor  can  any  clay  be  kept  in  this  condition,  except  by 
being  constantly  wet.  If  once  dried,  or  subjected  to  the 
action  of  frost,  the  soil  resumes  its  natural  condition  of 
porosity,  as  will  be  presently  explained.  They  who  object 
to  deep  drainage,  or  to  the  possibility  of  draining  stiff 
clays,  point  to  the  fact  that  water  may  be  seen  standing 
directly  over  the  drains,  on  thorough-drained  fields.  We 
have,  seen  this  on  our  own  fields.  In  one  instance,  we 


324  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

had,  after  laying  tiles  through  a  field,  at  50  feet  intervals, 
in  the  same  Autumn,  when  the  land  was  wet,  teamed 
across  it  a  large  quantity  of  soil  for  compost,  with  a  heavy 
ox-team.  The  next  Spring,  the  water  stood  for  many 
days  in  that  track  which  passed  across  tile-drains,  after  it 
ha'd  disappeared  elsewhere  in  the  field.  A  fine  crop  of 
Indian  corn  grew  on  the  field  that  year,  but  the  effect  of 
the  puddling  was  visible  the  whole  season.  "  One  inch 
of  wet  and  worked  clay,"  says  a  scientific  writer.  u  will 
prevent  water  from  passing  through,  so  long  as  it  is  kept 
wet,  as  effectually  as  a  yard  will  do." 

"  If,"  says  Gisborne,  "you  eat  off  turnips  with  sheep,  if  you  plow 
the»  land,  or  cart  on  it,  or  in  any  way  puddle  it,  when  it  is  wet,  of 
course  the  water  will  lie  on  the  surface,  and  will  not  go  to  your  drains. 
A  four-foot  drain  may  go  very  near  a  pit,  or  a  water-course,  without 
attracting  water  from  either,  because  water-courses  almost  invariably 
puddle  their  beds ;  and  the  same  effect  is  produced  in  pits  by  the  treading 
of  cattle,  and  even  by  the  motion  of  the  water  produced  by  wind.  A 
very  thin  film  of  puddle,  always  wet  on  one  side,  is  impervious,  because 
it  cannot  crack" 

In  those  four  words,  we  find  an  allusion  to  the  whole 
mystery  of  the  drainage  of  clays — a  key  which  unlocks 
the  secret  by  which  the  toughest  of  these  soils  may  be 
converted,  as  by  a  fairy  charm,  to  fields  of  waving  grain. 

CRACKING    OF    CLAYS   BY    DRYING. 

"  In  drying  under  the  influence  of  the  sun,"  says  Prof. 
Johnston,  "  soils  shrink  in,  and  thus  diminish  in  bulk,  in 
proportion  to  the  quantity  of  clay,  or  of  peaty  matter, 
they  contain.  Sand  scarcely  diminishes  at  all  in  bulk  by 
drying;  but  peat  shrinks  one-fifth  in  bulk,  and  strong 
agricultural  clay  nearly  as  much."  By  laying  drains  in 
land,  we  take  from  it  that  portion  of  the  water  that  will 
run  out  at  the  bottom.  The  sun,  by  evaporation,  then 
takes  out  a  portion  at  the  top.  The  soil  is  thus  contracted, 
and,  as  the  ends  of  the  field  cannot  approach  each  other, 


DRAINAGE   OF   CLAYS. 


325 


both  soil  and  subsoil  are  torn  apart,  and  divided  by  a 
network  of  cracks  and  fissures.  Every  one  who  is  familiar 
with  clay  land,  or  who  has  observed  the  bottom  of  a  ditch 
or  frog  pond  by  the  roadside,  must  have  observed  these 
cracks,  thus  caused  by  the  contraction  of  the  soil  in  dry- 
ing. The  same  contraction  occurs  in  drier  land,  by  cold, 
in  Winter ;  by  which,  in  cold  regions,  deep  rents  are  made 
in  the  earth,  and  reports,  like  those  of  cannon,  are  often 
heard.  The  cracking  by  drying,  however,  is  more  quiet 
in  its  effects,  merely  dividing  the  ground,  noiselessly,  into 
smaller  and  smaller  masses,  as  the  process  proceeds. 
Were  it  not  for  this  process,  it  may  well  be  doubted 
whether  clay  lands  could  be  effectually  drained  at  all. 
Nature,  however,  seems  to  second  our  efforts  here,  for  we 
have  seen  that  the  stiffer  the  clay,  the  greater  the  con- 
traction, and  the  more  the  soil  is  split  up  and  rendered 
permeable  by  this  operation. 

These  cracks  are  found,  by  observation,  to  commence 
at  the  drains,  and  extend  further  and  further,  in  almost 
straight  lines,  into  the  subsoil,  forming  so  many  minor 
drains,  or  feeders,  all  leading  to  the  tiles.  These  main 
fissures  have  numerous  smaller  ones  diverging  from  them, 
so  that  the  whole  mass  is  divided  and  subdivided  into  the 
most  minute  portions.  The  main  fissures  gradually  en- 
large, as  the  dry  ness  increases,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
lengthen  out ;  so  that,  in  a  very  dry  season,  they  may  be 
traced  the  whole  way  between  the  drains.  The  following 
cut  will  give  some  idea  of  these  cracks,  or  fissures,  aa 
they  exist  in  a  dry  time : 


Fig.  98.— Cracking  of  Clayg  by  Drainage. 


326  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

Mr.  Gisborne  says  :  ic  Clay  lands  always  shrink  and  crack  with 
drought  j  and  the  stiffer  the  clay,  the  greater  the  shrinking,  as  brick- 
makers  well  know.  In  the  great  drought  thirty-six  years  ago,  we  saw, 
in  a  very  retentive  soil  in  the  Vale  of  Belvoir,  cracks  which  it  was 
not  very  pleasant  to  ride  among.  This  very  Summer,  on  land,  which, 
with  reference  to  this  very  subject,  the  owner  stated  to  be  imper- 
vious, we  put  a  walking-stick  three  feet  into  a  sun-crack  with- 
out finding  a  bottom,  and  the  whole  surface  was  a  net-work  of 
cracks.  In  the  drained  soil,  the  roots  follow  the  threads  of  vegetable 
mould  which  have  been  wrashed  into  the  cracks,  and  get  an  abiding 
tenure.  Earth-worms  follow  either  the  roots  or  the  mould.  Permanent 
schisms  are  established  in  the  clay,  and  its  whole  character  is 
changed." 

In  the  United  States,  the  supply  of  rain  is  far  less  uni- 
form than  in  England,  and  much  severer  droughts  are  ex- 
perienced. Thus  the  contraction,  and  consequent  cracking 
of  the  soil,  must  be  greater  here  than  in  that  country. 

In  laying  drains  more  than  four  feet  deep,  in  the  stiifest 
clay  which  the  author  has  seen,  in  a  neighborhood  furnish- 
ing abundance  of  brick  and  potter's  clay,  these  cracks 
were  seen  to  extend  to  the  very  bottoms  of  the  drains,  not 
in  single  fissures  from  top  to  bottom,  but  in  innumerable 
seams  running  in  all  directions,  so  that  the  earth,  moved 
with  the  pickaxe,  came  up  in  little  cubes  and  flakes,  and 
could  be  separated  into  pieces  of  an  inch  or  less  diameter. 
This  was  on  a  ridge  which  received  no  water  except  from 
the  clouds,  having  no  springs  in  or  upon  it,  yet  so  nearly 
impervious  to  water,  that  it  remained  soft  and  muddy  till 
late  in  June.  In  Midsummer,  however,  under  our  burn- 
ing sun,  it  had,  by  evaporation,  been  so  much  dried  as  to 
produce  the  effect  described. 

In  England,  we  learn,  that  these  cracks  extend  to  the  depth  of  lour 
feet  or  more.  Mr.  Hewitt  Davis  stated  in  a  public  discussion,  with  re- 
ference to  draining  strong  soils,  that,  "  he  gave  four  feet  as  the  mini- 
mum depth  of  the  drains 'in  these  soils,  because  he  had  always  found 
that  the  cracks  and  fissures  formed  by  the  drought  and  changes  of  tem- 
perature, on  the  strongest  clay,  and  which  made  these  soilf  permeable, 


DRAINAGE   OF   CLAYS.  327 

extended  below  this  depth,  and  the  water  from  the  surface  might  be 
made  to  reach  the  drains  at  this  distance." 

In  clay  that  lias  never  been  dried,  as  for  instance,  that 
found  under  wet  meadows  from  which  the  water  has  but 
recently  been  drawn,  we  should  not,  of  course,  expect  to 
find  these  cracks.  Accordingly,  we  find  sometimes  in  clay 
pits,  excavated  below  the  permanent  water-line,  and  in 
wells,  that  the  clay  is  in  a  compact  mass,  and  tears  apart 
without  exhibiting  anything  like  these  divisions. 

We  should  not  expect  that,  on  such  a  clay,  the  full  effect 
of  drainage  would  be  at  once  apparent.  The  water  falling 
on  the  surface  would  very  slowly  find  its  way  downward, 
at  first.  But  after  the  heat  of  Summer,  aided  by  the 
drains  underneath,  had  contracted  and  cracked  the  soil, 
passages  for  the  water  would  soon  be  found,  and,  after 
a  few  years,  the  whole  mass,  to  the  depth  of  the  drains, 
would  become  open  and  permeable.  As  an  old  English 
farmer  said  of  his  drains,  "  They  do  better  year  by  year  ; 
the  water  gets  a  habit  of  coming  to  them."  Although 
this  be  not  philosophical  language,  yet  the  fact  is  correctly 
stated.  Water  tends  towards  the  lowest  openings.  A 
deep  well  often  diverts  the  underground  stream  from  a 
shallower  well,  and  lays  it  dry.  A  single  railroad  cut  some- 
times draws  off  the  supply  of  water  from  a  whole  neigh- 
borhood. Passages  thus  formed  are  enlarged  by  the  pres- 
sure of  the  water,  and  new  ones  are  opened  by  the  causes 
already  suggested,  till  the  drainage  becomes  perfect  for 
all  practical  purposes.  So  much  is  this  cracking  process 
relied  on  to  facilitate  drainage,  that  skillful  drainers  frer 
quently  leave  their  ditches  partly  open,  after  laying  the 
tiles,  that  the  heat  may  produce  the  more  effect  during 
the  first  season. 

As  to  the  depth  of  drains  in  stiff  clays,  enough  has 
already  been  said,  under  the  appropriate  title.  In  Eng- 
land, the  weight  of  authority  is  in  favor  of  four-foot  drains. 


328  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

In  this  country,  a  less  depth  has  thus  far,  in  general,  been 
adopted  in  practice,  but  it  is  believed  that  tins  has  been 
because  a  greater  depth  has  not  been  tried.  It  is  under- 
stood, that  the  most  successful  drainers  in  the  State  of  JS"ew 
York,  have  been  satisfied  with  three-foot  drains,  not,  as  it 
is  believed,  because  there  is  any  instance  on  record,  in  this 
country,  of  the  failure  of  four-foot  drains,  but  because  the 
effect  of  more  shallow  drains  has  been  so  satisfactory,  that 
it  has  been  thought  a  useless  expense  to  go  deeper.  To 
Mr.  Johnston  and  to  Mr.  Delafield,  of  Seneca  County, 
the  country  is  greatly  indebted  for  their  enterprise  and 
leadership  in  the  matter  of  drainage.  Mr.  Johnston  gives 
it  as  his  opinion,  that  "  three  feet  is  deep  enough,  if  the 
bottom  is  hard  enough  to  lay  tiles  on  ;  if  not,  go  deeper." 

"Without  intimating  that  any  different  mode  of  drainage 
than  that  adopted,  would  have  been  better  on  Mr.  John- 
ston's farm,  we  should  be  unwilling  to  surrender,  even  to 
the  opinion  of  Mr.  Johnston  and  his  friends,  our  convic- 
tion that,  in  general,  three-foot  drains  are  too  shallow. 
Mr.  Johnston  expressly  disclaims  any  experience  in  drain- 
ing a  proper  clay  soil.  In  the  Country  Gentleman,  of 
June  10th,  1848,  lie  says  : 

':  In  a  subsoil  that  is  impervious  to  water,  either  by  being  a  red 
clay,  blue  clay,  or  hard-pan,  within  a  foot  of  the  surface,  I  would  re- 
commend farmers  to  feel  their  way  very  cautiously  in  draining.  If 
tiles  and  labor  were  as  low  here  as  in  Great  Britain,  we  could  afford  to 
make  drains  sixteen  feet  apart  in  such  land,  and  then,  by  loosening  the 
soil,  say  twenty  inches  deep,  by  the  subsoil  plow,  I  think  such  land 
might  be  made  perfectly  dry ;  but  I  don't  think  the  time  is  yet  come, 
considering  the  cost  of  tiles  and  labor,  to  undertake  such  an  outlay  ; 
but  still  it  might  pay  in  the  end.  I  have  found  only  a  little  of  red 
clay  subsoil  in  draining  my  farm.  I  never  had  any  blue  clay  on 
my  farm,  or  hard-pan,  to  trouble  me;  but  I  can  readily  perceive 
that  it  must  be  equally  bad  to  drain  as  the  tenacious  red  clay.  If 
I  were  going  to  purchase  another  farm,  I  would  look  a  great  deal 
more  to  the  subsoil  than  the  surface  soil.  If  the  subsoil  is  right, 
the  surface  soil,  I  think,  cannot  be  wrong." 


DRAINAGE   OF   CLAYS.  329 

In  the  same  paper,  under  date  of  July  8th,  Mr.  John- 
ston says,  "  The  only  experience  I  have  had  in  digging 
into  soils,  to  judge  of  draining  out  of  this  county  (Seneca), 
was  in  Niagara."  He  states  the  result  of  his  observations 
thus  : 

"  A  few  inches  below  the  surface  I  found  a  stiff  blue  clay  for  about  ten 
inches  deep,  and  as  impervious  to  water  as  so  much  iron.  Underneath  that 
blue  clay,  I  found  a  red  clay,  apparently  impervious  to  water  ;  but,  as 
water  could  not  get  through  the  blue,  I  could  only  guess  at  that; 
and,  after  spending  the  greater  part  of  the  day,  with  five  men  dig- 
ging holes  from  four  to  five  feet  deep,  I  found  I  knew  no  more  how 
such  land  could  be  drained,  than  a  man  who  had  -never  seen  a  drain 
dug.  I  advised  the  gentleman  to  try  a  few  experiments,  by  digging 
a  few  ditches,  as  I  laid  them  out,  and  plowing  as  deep  as  possible 
with  a  subsoil  plow,  but  to  get  no  tile  until  he  saw  if  he  could  get  a  ruii 
of  water.  He  paid  my  traveling  expenses,  treated  me  very  kindly 
and  I  have  heard  nothing  from  him  since. 

"  Now,  if  your  correspondent's  soil  and  subsoil  is  similar  to  that  soil 
I  would  advise  him  to  feel  his  way  cautiously  in  draining.  Certainly, 
no  man  would  be  fool  enough  to  dig  ditches  and  lay  tile,  if  there  is  no 
water  to  carry  off." 

In  the  Country  Gentleman  of  Nov.  18th,  1858,  we  find 
an  interesting  statement,  by  John  S.  Pettibone,  of  Man- 
chester, Vermont,  partly  in  reply  to  the  statement  of  Mr. 
Johnston. 

The  experiment  by  Mr.  Pettibone,  showing  the  increased 
permeability  of  clay,  merely  by  the  passage  of  water  through 
it,  is  very  interesting.  He  says,  in  his  letter  to  the 
editor  : 

"  When  so  experienced  a  drainer  as  Mr.  Johnston  expresses  an  opin- 
ion that  some  soils  cannot  be  drained,  it  is  important  we  should  know 
what  the  soil  is  which  cannot  be  drained.  He  uses  the  word  stiff  blue 
clay,  as  descriptive  of  the  soil  which  cannot  be  drained.  *  *  * 

"  I  had  taken  a  specimen  of  what  I  thought  to  be  stiff  blue  clay. 
That  clay,  when  wet,  as  taken  out,  would  hold  water  about  as  well  as 
iron  :  yet,  from  experiments  I  have  made,  I  am  confident  that  sue  >  clay 
soil  can  be  drained,  and  at  much  less  expense  than  a  hard-pan  soil. 
Water  will  pass  through  such  clay,  and  the  clay  become  dry  j  and  after 


330  FARM     DRAINAGE, 

it  becomes  once  dry,  water  will,  I  am  convinced,  readily  pass  down 
through  such  stiff  blue  clay.  The  specimen  was  taken  about  three  feet 
below  the  surface,  and  on  a  level  with  a  brook  which  runs  through  this 
clay  soil.  I  filled  a  one  hundred-pound  nail-keg  with  clay  taken  from 
the  same  place.  It  was  so  wet.  that  by  shaking,  it  came  to  a  level,  and 
water  rose  to  the  top  of  the  clay.  I  had  made  holes  in  the  bottom  of 
the  keg,  and  set  it  up  on  blocks.  After  twenty-four  hours  I  came  almost 
to  the  conclusion  Mr.  Johnston  did,  that  water  would  not  pass  through 
this  clay.  This  trial  was  during  the  hot,  dry  weather  last  Summer 
After  some  ten  or  twelve  days  the  clay  appeared  to  be  dry.  I  then 
made  a  basin-like  excavation  in  the  top  of  the  clay,  and  put  water  in, 
and  the  water  disappeared  rather  slowly.  I  filled  the  basin  with  water 
frequently,  and  the'oftener  I  filled  it,  the  more  readily  it  passed  off.  I 
left  it  for  more  than  a  week,  when  we  had  a  heavy  shower.  After  the 
shower  I  examined  the  keg,  and  not  a  drop  of  water  was  to  be  seen.  I 
then  took  a  chisel  and  cut  a  hole  six  inches  down.  I  took  out  a  piece 
like  the  one  I  dried  in  the  house,  and  laid  that  up  till  it  was,  perfectly 
dry.  There  was  a  plain  diiference  between  the  appearance  of  the  two 
pieces.  The  texture,  I  should  say,  was  quite  different.  That  through 
which  the  water  had  passed,  after  it  had  been  dried,  was  more  open  and 
porous.  It  did  not  possess  so  much  of  the  blue  cast.  In  less  than  one 
hour  after  the  rain  fell,  the  clay  taken  six  inches  from  the  top  of  the 
keg  would  crumble  by  rubbing  in  the  hand." 

When  we  observe  the  effect  of  heat  in  opening  clays  to 
water  by  cracking,  and  the  effect  of  the  water  itself,  aided, 
as  it  doubtless  is,  by  the  action  of  the  air,  in  rendering  the 
soil  permeable,  we  hardly  need  feel  discouraged  if  the 
question  rested  entirely  on  this  evidence ;  but  when  we 
consider  that  thousands  upon  thousands  of  acres  of  the 
stiffest  clays  have  been,  in  England  and  Scotland,  rescued 
from  utter  barrenness  by  drainage,  and  made  to  yield  the 
largest  crops,  we  should  regard  the  question  of  practica- 
bility as  settled.  The  only  question  left  for  decision  is 
whether,  under  all  the  circumstances  of  each  particular 
case,  the  operation  of  draining  our  clay  lands  will  be 
expedient — whether  their  increased  value  will  pay  the 
expense.  It  is  often  objected  to  deep  drains  in  clays,  that 
it  is  so  far  down  to  the  drains  that  the  water  cannot  read 


DRAINAGE    OF   CLAYS.  331 

ily  pass  through  so  large  a  mass.  If  we  think  merely  of 
a  drop  of  rain  falling  on  the  surface,  and  obliged  to  find  its 
devious  way  through  the  mazes  of  cracks  and  particles  till 
it  gains  an  outlet  at  the  bottom  of  four  feet  of  clay,  it  does 
seem  a  discouraging  journey  for  the  poor  little  solitary 
thing  ;  but  there  is  a  more  correct  view  of  the  matter, 
which  somewhat  relieves  the  difficulty. 

All  the  water  that  will  run  out  of  the  soil  has  departed ; 
but  the  soil  holds  a  vast  amount  still,  by  attraction.  The 
rain  begins  to  fall ;  and  when  the  soil  is  saturated,  a  portion 
passes  into  the  drain;  but  it  is,  by  no  nleans,  the  water 
which  last  fell  upon  the  surface,  but  that  which  was  next 
the  drain  before  the  rain  fell.  If  you  pour  water  into  a 
tube  that  is  nearly  full,  the  water  which  will  first  run 
from  the  other  end  is  manifestly  not  that  which  you  pour 
in.  ,  So  the  ground  is  full  of  little  tubes,  open  at  both 
ends,  in  which  the  water  is  held  by  attraction.  A  drop 
upon  the  surface  drives  out  a  drop  at  the  lower  end,  into 
to  the  drain,  and  so  the  process  goes  on — the  drains  begin- 
ning to  run  as  soon  as  the  rain  commences,  and  ceasing  to 
flow  only  when  the  principle  of  attraction  balances  the 
power  of  gravitation. 

PRESSURE    OF   WATER    IN    THE    SOIL. 

In  connection  with  the  passage  of  water  through  clay  soil, 
it  may  be  appropriate  to  advert  to  the  question  sometimes 
mooted,  whether  in  a  soil  filled  with  water,  at  four  feet 
depth,  there  is  the  same  pressure  as  there  would  be,  at  the 
same  depth,  in  a  river  or  pond.  The  pressure  of  fluids  on 
a  given  area,  is,  ordinarily,  in  proportion  to  their  vertical 
height ;  and  the  pressure  of  a  column  of  water,  four  feet  high, 
would  be  sufficient  to  drive  the  lower  particles  into  an 
opening  like  a  drain,  with  considerable  force,  and  the  upper 
part  of  such  a  column  wTould  essentially  aid  the  lower  part 
in  its  downward  passage.  Does  this  pressure  exist  ?  Mr, 
Gisborne  speaks  undoubtingly  on  this  point,  thus  : 


332  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

"  We  will  assume  the  drain  to  be  four  feet  deep,  and  the  water-table 
to  be  at  one  foot  below  the  surface  of  the  earth.  Every  particle  of 
'water  which  lies  at  three  feet  below  the  water-table,  has  on  it  the 
pressure  of  a  column  of  water  three  feet  high.  This  pressure  will  drive 
the  particle  in  any  direction  in  which  it  finds  no  resistance,  with  a 
rapidity  varying  inversely  to  the  friction  of  the  medium  through  which 
the  column  acts.  The  bottom  of  our  drains  will  offer  no  resistance,  and 
into  it  particles  of  water  will  be  pushed,  in  conformity  with  the  rule 
we  have  stated  j  rapidly,  if  the  medium  opposes  little  friction ;  slowly 
if  it  opposes  much.  The  water  so  pushed  in  runs  off  by  the  drain,  the 
column  of  pressure  being  diminished  in  proportion  to  the  water  which 
runs  off." 

Mr.  Thomas  Arkell,  in  a  paper  read  before  the  Society 
of  Arts,  in  1855,  says,  on  this  point : 

"  The  pressure  due  to  a  head  of  water  of  four  or  five  feet,  may  be 
imagined  from  the  force  with  which  water  will  come  through  the  crev- 
ices of  a  hatch,  with  that  depth  of  water  above  it.  Now,  there  is  the 
same  pressure  of  water  to  enter  the  vacuum  in  the  pipe-drain,  a*  there 
is  against  the  hatches,  supposing  the  land  to  be  full  to  the  surface." 

We  do  not  find  any  intimation  that  there  is  any  error  in 
the  view  advanced  by  the  learned  gentleman  quoted ;  and 
if  there  is  none,  we  have  an  explanation  of  the  faculty 
which  water  seems  to  have,  of  finding  its  way  into  drain- 
pipes. Yet,  we  feel  bound  to  confess,  that,  aside  from 
authority,  we  should  have  supposed  that  the  pressure 
due  to  a  column  of  pure  water,  would  be  essentially  les- 
sened, by  the  interposition  of  solid  matter  between  its 
particlefc. 


EFFECT   OF   DRAINAGE   ON    STREAMS.  333 


CHAPTER  XX. 

EFFECT   OF   DRAINAGE    ON    STREAMS   AND   IUVER8. 

Drainage  Hastens  the  Supply  to  the  Streams,  and  thus  Creates  Freshets. — 
Effect  of  Drainage  on  Meadows  below;  on  Water  Privileges. — Conflict 
of  Manufacturing  and  Agricultural  Interests. — English  Opinions  and 
Facts. — Uses  of  Drainage  Water. — Irrigation. — Drainage  Water  for  Stock. 
— How  used  by  Mr.  Mechi. 

THE  effect  of  drainage  upon  streams  and  rivers,  has, 
perhaps,  little  to  interest  merely  practical  men,  in  this 
country,  at  present ;  but  the  time  will  soon  arrive,  when 
mill-owners  and  land-owners  will  be  compelled  to  inves- 
tigate the  subject.  Men  unaccustomed  to  minute  inves- 
tigation, are  slow  to  appreciate  the  great  effects  produced 
by  apparently  small  causes ;  and  it  may  seem  to  many, 
that  the  operations  of  drainage  for  agriculture,  are  too 
insignificant  in  their  details,  perceptibly  to  affect  the  flow 
of  mill-streams  and  rivers.  A  moment's  thought  will 
convince  the  most  skeptical,  that  the  thorough-drainage 
of  the  wet  lands,  even  of  a  New  England  township,  must 
produce  sensible  effects  upon  the  streams  which  convey 
its  surplus  water  toward  the  sea. 

In  making  investigations  to  ascertain  what  quantity  of 
water  may  be  relied  upon  to  supply  a  reservoir,  whether 
natural  or  artificial,  for  the  use  of  a  town  or  city,  a  survey 
is  first  taken  of  the  district  of  territory  which  naturally  is 
drained  into  the  reservoir,  and  thus  the  number  of  square 
miles  of  surface  is  ascertained.  Then  the  rain-tables  are 
consulted,  and  the  fall  of  rain  upon  the  surveyed  district 


334  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

is  computed.  The  ascertained  proportion  of  rain-fall, 
which  usually  goes  off  by  evaporation,  is  then  deducted, 
which  leaves  with  sufficient  accuracy,  the  amount  of  water 
which  flows  both  upon  the  surface,  and  through  the  soil, 
to  the  reservoir.  With  proper  deductions  for  waste  by 
freshets,  when  the  water  will  overflow  the  reservoir,  and 
for  other  known  losses,  a  reliable  estimate  is  readily  made, 
in  advance,  of  the  quantity  of  water  supplied  to  the 
reservoir. 

Now,  these  reservoirs  Nature  has  placed  in  all  our 
valleys,  in  the  form  of  lakes  and  ponds,  and  the  drainage 
into  them  is  by  natural  springs  and  streams;  and  the 
annual  amount  of  the  water  thus  naturally  flowing  into 
them  may  be  readily  computed,  if  the  area  within  their 
head- waters  be  known.  If  the  earth's  surface  were,  like 
iron,  impervious  to  water,  the  rain-water  would  come  in 
torrents  down  the  hill-sides,  and  along  the  gentle  decli- 
vities, into  the  streams,  creating  freshets  and  inundations 
in  a  few  hours.  But  instead  of  that,  the  soft  showers  fall, 
often  on  the  open,  thirsty  soil,  and  so  are  gradually 
absorbed.  A  part  of  the  rain-water  is  there  held,  until  it 
returns  by  evaporation,  to  the  clouds,  while  a  part  slowly 
percolates  downward,  finding  its  way  into  swamps  and 
springy  plains,  and  finally,  after  days  or  weeks  of  wander- 
ing, slowly,  but  surely,  finds  its  outlet  in  the  stream  or 
pond. 

If  now,  this  surplus  of  water,  this  part  which  cannot  be 
evaporated,  and  must  therefore,  sooner  or  later,  enter  the 
stream  or  pond,  be,  by  artificial  channels,  carried  directly 
to  its  destination,  without  the  delay  of  filtration  through 
swamps  and  clay-banks ;  the  effect  of  rain  to  raise  the 
streams  and  ponds,  must  be  more  sudden  and  immediate. 
Agricultural  drains  furnish  those  artificial  channels.  The 
flat  and  mossy  swamp,  which  before  retained  the  water 
until  the  Midsummer  drought,  and  then  slowly  parted 


EFFECT   OF   DRAINAGE    ON    STREAMS.  335 

with  it,  by  evaporation  or  gradual  filtration,  now,  by 
thorough-drainage,  in  two  or  three  days  at  most,  sends  all 
its  surplus  water  onward  to  the  natural  stream.  The  stag- 
nant clay-beds,  which  formerly,  by  slow  degree  s,  allowed 
the  water  to  filter  through  them  to  the  wayside  ditch, 
and  then  to  the  river,  now,  by  drainage,  contribute  their 
proportion,  in  a  few  hours,  to  swell  the  stream.  Thus, 
evaporation  is  lessened,  and  the  amount  of  water  which 
enters  the  natural  channels  largely  increased  ;  and,  what 
is  of  more  importance,  the  water  which  flows  from  the 
land  is  sent  at  once,  after  its  fall  from  the  heavens,  into 
the  streams.  This  produces  upon  the  mill-streams  a  two- 
fold effect ;  first,  to  raise  sudden  freshets  to  overflow  the 
dams,  and  sweep  away  the  mills ;  and,  secondly,  to  dry 
up  their  supply  in  dry  seasons,  and  to  diminish  their 
water-power. 

Upon  the  low  meadows  which  border  the  streams,  the 
effects  of  the  drainage  of  lands  above  them  are  various, 
according  to  their  position.  In  many  cases,  it  must  sub- 
ject them  to  inundation  by  Summer  freshets,  and  must 
require  for  their  protection ,  catch- waters  and  embank- 
ments,  and  large  facilities  for  drainage. 

The  effect  of  drainage  upon  "water  privileges,"  must 
inevitably  be,  to  lessen  their  value,  by  giving  them  a 
sudden  surplus,  followed  by  drought,  instead  of  a  regular 
supply  of  water.  Water-power  companies  and  mill- 
owners  are  never  careless  of  their  interests.  Through  the 
patriotic  desire  to  foster  home-manufactures,  our  State  le- 
gislatures have  granted  many-peculiar  privileges  to  manu- 
facturing corporations.  Indeed,  all  the  streams  and  rivers 
of  New  England  are  chained  to  labor  at  their  wheels. 

Agriculture  has  thus  far  taken  care  of  herself,  but  is 
destined  soon  to  come  in  collision  with  the  chartered 
privileges  of  manufactures.  Many  questions,  touching 
the  right  of  land-owners  to  change  the  natural  flow  of  the 


336  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

water,  to  the  injury  of  mill-owners;  many  questions 
touching  +he  right  of  mill-owners  to  obstruct  the  natural 
course  of  streams,  to  the  injury  of  the  farmer,  will  in- 
evitably arise  in  our  Courts.  Slowly,  and  step  by  step, 
must  the  lesser  interest  of  manufactures,  recede  before  the 
advance  of  the  great  fundamental  interest  of  agriculture, 
until,  in  process  of  time,  steam,  or  some  yet  undiscovered 
giant  power,  shall  put  its  hand  to  the  great  wheel  of  the 
factory  and  the  mill,  and  the  pent-up  waters  shall  subside 
to  their  natural  banks. 

That  these  are  not  mere  speculations  of  our  own,  may 
be  seen  from  extracts  which  will  be  given  from  answers 
returned  by  distinguished  observers  of  these  matters  in 
England  and  Scotland,  to  a  question  proposed  to  them  as 
to  the  actual  effects  produced  by  extensive  drainage. 
Some  diversity  of  opinion  is  observable  in  the  different 
replies,  which  were  made,  independently  in  writing,  and 
so  are  more  valuable. 

Mr.  Smith.  — "  During  dry  periods,  more  particularly  in  Summer,  the 
water  in  the  streams  is  greatly  lessened  by  thorough-draining;  for 
there  is  so  great  a  mass  of  comparatively  dry  and  absorbent  soil  to 
receive  the  rain,  that  Summer  showers,  unless  very  heavy  and  contin- 
uous, will  be  entirely  absorbed." 

Mr,  ParJces. — "  The  intention  and  effect  of  a  complete  and  system- 
atic under-drainage  is  the  liberation  of  the  water  of  rain  more  quickly 
from  the  land  than  if  it  were  not  drained  ]  and  therefore  the  natural 
vents,  or  rivers,  very  generally  require  enlargement  or  deepening,  in 
order  to  pass  off  the  drainage  water  in  sufficiently  quick  time,  and  so 
as  to  avoid  flooding  lower  lands. 

'c  The  sluggish  rivers  of  the  midland  and  southern  counties  of  Eng- 
land especially,  oppose  great  obstacles  to  land-drainage,  being  usually 
full  to  the  banks,  or  nearly  so,  and  converted  into  a  series  of  ponds,  by 
mill-dams  erected  at  a  few  miles  distance  below  each  other  :  so  that, 
frequently,  no  effectual  drainage  of  the  richest  alluvial  soil  composing 
the  meadows,  can  be  made,  without  forming  embankments,  or  by  pump- 
ing, or  by  resort  to  other  artificial  and  expensive  means. 

"  The  greater  number  of  the  corn  and  other  water-mills  throughout 
England  ought  to  be  demolished,  for  the  advantage  of  agriculture,  and 


EFFECT   OF   DRAINAGE    ON    STREAMS.  337 

steam -power  should  to  be  provided  for  the  millers.  I  believe  that  such 
an  arrangement  would,  in  most  cases,  prove  to  be  sconomical  both  to 
the  landholder  and  the  miller. 

c£  Every  old  authority,  and  all  modern  writers  on  land  drainage  in 
England,  have  condemned  water-mills  and  mill-dams  :  and  if  all  the 
rivers  of  England  were  surveyed  from  the  sea  to  their  source,  the  mills 
upon  them  valued,  the  extent  of  land  injured  or  benefitted  by  such 
mill-darns  ascertained,  and  the  whole  question  of  advantage  or  injury 
done  to  the  land-owner  appreciated  and  appraised,  I  have  little  doubt 
but  that  the  injury  done,  would  be  found  so  greatly  to  exceed  the  rental 
of  the  mills,  deduction  being  made  of  the  cost  of  maintaining  them,  that 
it  would  be  a  measure  of  national  economy,  to  buy  up  the  mills,  and 
give  the  millers  steam-power." 

Mr.  Spooner. — "  The  effect  which  extensive  drainage  produces  on  the 
main  water-courses  of  districts,  is  that  of  increasing  the  height  of  their 
rise  at  flood  times,  and  rendering  the  flow  and  subsidence  more  rapid 
than  before.  I  have  repeatedly  heard  the  River  Tweed  adduced  as  a 
striking  instance  of  this  fact,  and  that  the  change  has  taken  place  within 
the  observation  of  the  present  generation." 

Mr.  Maccaw. — "  It  has  been  observed  that,  after  extensive  surface- 
drainage  on  the  sheepwalks  in  the  higher  parts  of  the  country,  and 
whtm  the  lower  lands  were  enclosed  by  ditches,  and  partially  drained 
for  the  purposes  of  cultivation,  all  rivers  flowing  therefrom,  rise  more 
rapidly  after  heavy  rains  or  falls  of  snow,  and  discharge  their  surplus 
waters  more  quickly,  than  under  former  circumstances." 

Mr.  Beattie. — "  It  renders  them  more  speedily  flooded,  and  to  a 
greater  height,  and  they  fall  sooner.  Rivers  are  lower  in  Summer  and 
higher  in  Winter." 

Mr.  Nielson. — il  The  immediate  effect  of  the  drainage  of  higher  lands 
has  often  been  to  inundate  the  lower  levels." 

In  a  prize  essay  of  John  Algernon  Clarke,  speaking  of 
the  effect  of  drainage  along  the  course  of  the  River  Nene, 
in  England,  he  says : 

•'  The  upland  farms  are  delivering  their  drain- water  in  much  larger 
quantities,  and  more  immediately  after  the  downfall,  than  formerly,  and 
swelling  to  the  depth  of  three  to  six  feet  over  the  20,000  acres  of  open 
ground,  which  form  one  vast  reservoir  for  it  above  and  below  Peterborough. 
The  Nene  used  to  overflow  its  banks,  to  the  extreme  height,  about  the 
third  day  after  rain  ;  the  floods  now  reach  the  same  height  in  about 
half  that  time.  Twelve  hours'  rain  will  generally  cause  an  overflow 
of  the  land,  which  all  lies  unembanked  from  the  stream ;  and  where  it 
15 


338  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

is  already  saturated,  this  takes  place  in  six  or  even  in  two  hours. 
Such  a  quick  rise  will  cause  one  body  of  flood-water  to  extend  foi 
forty  or  fifty  miles  in  succession,  with  a  width  varying  from  a  quar- 
ter of  a  mile  to  a  mile  ;  but  it  stays  sometimes  for  six  weeks,  or  even 
two  months,  upon  the  ground.  And  those  floods  come  down  with  an  • 
alarming  power  and  velocity — bridges  which  have  stood  for  a  century 
are  washed  away,  and  districts  where  floods  were  previously  unknown 
have  became  liable  to  their  sudden  periodical  inundations.  The  land 
being  wholly  in  meadow,  suffers  very  heavily  from  the  destruction  of  its 
hay.  So  sudden  are  the  inundations,  that  it  frequently  happens  that 
hay  made  in  the  day  has,  in  the  night  been  found  swimming  and  gone. 
A  public-house  sign  at  Wansford  commemorates  the  locally-famed  cir- 
cumstance of  a  man  who,  having  fallen  asleep  on  a  hay-cock,  was 
carried  down  the  stream  by  a  sudden  flood  :  awakening  just  under  the 
bridge  of  that  town,  and  being  informed  where  he  was,  he  demanded, 
in  astonishment,  if  this  were  '  Wansford  in  England.' " 

The  fact  that  the  floods  in  that  neighborhood  now  reach 
their  height  in  half  their  former  time,  in  consequence  of 
the  drainage  of  the  "upland  farms,"  is  very  significant. 

Mr.  Denton  thus  speaks  upon  the  same  point,  though 
his  immediate  subject  was  that  of  compulsory  outfalls. 

"  Although  the  quantity  of  land  drained  was  small,  in  comparison  to 
that  which  remained  to  be  drained,  the  water  which  was  discharged  by 
the  drainage  already  effected  found  its  way  so  rapidly  to  the  outfalls, 
that  the  consequences  were  becoming  more  and  more  injurious  every 
day.  Tne  millers  were  now  suffering  from  two  causes.  At  times  of 
excess,  after  a  considerable  fall  of  rain,  and  when  the  miller  was  injuri- 
ously overloaded,  the  excess  was  increased  by  the  rapidity  with  which 
the  under-drains  discharged  themselves  ;  and  as  the  quantity  of  water 
thus  discharged,  must  necessarily  lessen  the  subsequent  supply,  the 
period  of  drought  was  advanced  in  a  corresponding  degree.  As  the 
millers  already  saw  this,  and  were  anticipating  increasing  losses,  they 
would  join  in  finding  a  substitute  for  water-power  upon  fair  terms." 

It  is  not  supposed,  that  any  considerable  practical  effects 
of  drainage,  upon  the  streams  of  this  country,  have  been 
observed.  A  treatise,  however,  upon  the  general  subject 
of  Drainage,  which  should  omit  a  point  like  this,  which 
must,  before  many  years,  attract  serious  attention,  would 
be  quite  incomplete.  Whether  the  effect  of  a  system  of 


EFFECT  OF  DRAINAGE  ON  STREAMS.         389 

thorough -drain  age  make  for  or  against  the  interest  of  mill 
and  meadow  owners  on  the  lower  parts  of  streams,  should 
have  no  influence  over  those  who  design  only  to  present 
the  truth,  in  all  its  varied  aspects. 

As  some  compensation  for  the  evils  which  may  fall 
upon  lands  at  a  lower  level,  by  drainage  of  uplands,  it  may 
be  interesting  to  notice  briefly  in' this  place,  some  of  the 
uses  to  which  drainage-water  has  been  applied,  for  the 
advantage  of  lower  lands.  In  many  cases,  in  Great 
Britain,  the  water  of  drainage  has  been  preserved  in  re- 
servoirs, or  artificial  ponds,  and  applied  for  the  irrigation 
of  water  meadows ;  and  as  is  suggested  by  Lieut.  Maury, 
in  a  letter  quoted  in  our  introductory  chapter,  the  same 
may,  in  many  localities,  be  done  in  this  country,  and  thus 
our  crops  of  grass  be  often  tripled,  on  our  low  meadows. 
In  many  cases,  water  from  deep  drains,  will  furnish  the 
most  convenient  supply  for  barn  yards  and  pastures.  It 
is  usually  sufficiently  pure  and  6ool  in  Summer,  and  is 
preferred  by  cattle  to  the  water  of  running  streams. 

On  Mr.  Mechi's  farm  at  Tiptree  Hall,  in  England,  we 
observed  a  large  cistern,  in  which  all  the  manure  neces- 
sary for  the  highest  culture  of  170  acres  of  land,  is  liqui- 
fied, and  from  which  it  is  pumped  out  by  a  steam  engine, 
over  the  farm.  All  the  water,  which  supplies  the  cistern, 
is  collected  from  tile  drains  on  the  farm,  where  there  had 
before  been  no  running  water. 


340  FARM  DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTER  XXI. 

LEGISLATION DRAINAGE   COMPANIES. 

England  protects  her  Farmers. — Meadows  ruined  by  CorporatiMi  dams.- 
Old  Mills  often  Nuisances.— Factory  Reservoirs. — Flowage  extends  abovd 
level  of  Dam. — Rye  and  Derwent  Drainage.— Give  Steam  for  Water-Power. 
— Right  to  Drain  through  land  of  others. — Right  to  natural  flow  of  Water. 
— Laws  of  Mass. — Right  to  Flow ;  why  not  to  Drain  ? — Land-drainage 
Companies  in  England. — Lincolnshire  Fens. — Government  Loans  for 
Drainage. 

NOTHING  more  clearly  shows  the  universal  interest  and  confidence  of 
the  people  of  Great  Britian.  in  the  operation  of  land-drainage,  than  the 
acts  of  Parliament  in  relation*  to  the  subject.  The  conservatism  of 
England,  in  the  view  of  an  American,  is  striking.  She  never  takes  a 
step  till  she  is  sure  she  is  right.  Justly  proud  of  her  position  among 
the  nations,  she  deems  change  an  unsafe  experiment,  and  what  has 
been,  much  safer  than  what  might  be.  Vested  rights  are  sacred  in 
England,  and  especially  rights  in  lands,  which  are  emphatically  real 
estate  there. 

Such  are  the  sentiments  of  the  people,  and  such  the  sentiments  of 
their  representatives  and  exponents,  the  Lords  and  Commons. 

Yet  England  has  been  so  impressed  with  the  importance  of  improving 
the  condition  of  the  people,  of  increasing  the  wealth  of  the  nation,  of 
enriching  both  tenant  and  landlord,  by  draining  the  land,  that  the  his- 
tory of  her  legislation,  in  aid  of  such  operations,  affords  a  lesson  of 
progress  even  to  fast  Young  America.  Powers  have  been  granted,  by 
which  encumbered  estates  may  be  charged  with  the  expenses  of  drain- 
age, so  that  remainder-men  and  reversioners,  without  their  consent, 
shall  be  compelled  to  contribute  to  present  improvements  ;  so  that  care- 
less or  ebstinate  adjacent  proprietors  shall  be  compelled  to  keep  open 
their  ditches  for  outfalls  to  their  neighbor's  drains ;  so  that  mill-dams, 
and  other  obstructions  to  the  natural  flow  of  the  water,  may  be  removed 
for  the  benefit  of  agriculture ;  and,  finally,  the  Government  has  itself 


LEGISLATION.  341 

furnished  funds,  by  way  of  loans,  of  millions  of  pounds,  in  aid  of  im- 
provements of  this  character. 

In  America,  where  private  individual  right  is  usually  compelled  to 
yield  to  the  good  of  the  whole,  and  where  selfishness  and  obstinacy  do 
not  long  stand  in  the  pathway  of  progress,  obstructing  manifest  im- 
provement in  the  condition  of  the  people ;  we  are  yet  far  behind  Eng 
land  in  legal  facilities  for  promoting  the  improvement  of  land  culture. 
This  is  because  the  attention  of  the  public  has  not  been  particularly 
called  to  the  subject. 

Manufacturing  corporations  are  created  by  special  acts  of  legislation. 
In  many  States,  rights  to  flow,  and  ruin,  by  inundation,  most  valuable 
lands  along  the  course  of  rivers,  and  by  the  banks  of  ponds  and  lakes, 
to  aid  the  water-power  of  mills,  are  granted  to  companies,  and  the 
land-owner  is  compelled  to  part  with  his  meadows  for  such  compensa- 
tion as  a  committee  or  jury  shall  assess. 

In  almost  every  town  in  New  England  there  are  hundreds,  and 
often  thousands,  of  acres  of  lands,  that  might  be  most  productive  to  the 
farmer;  overflowed  half  the  year  with  water,  to  drive  some  old  saw-mill, 
or  grist-mill,  or  cotton-mill,  which  has  not  made  a  dividend,  or  paid 
expenses,  for  a  quarter  of  a  century.  The  whole  water-power,  which, 
perhaps,  ruins  for  cultivation  a  thousand  acres  of  fertile  land,  and 
divides  and  breaks  up  farms,  by  creating  little  creeks  and  swamps 
throughout  all  the  neighboring  valleys,  is  not  worth,  and  would  not  be 
assessed,  by  impartial  men,  at  one  thousand  dollars.  Yet,  though  there 
is  power  to  take  the  farmer's  land  for  the  benefit  of  manufacturers,  there 
is  no  power  to  take  down  the  company  '  dam  for  the  benefit  of  agricul- 
ture. An  old  saw-mill,  which  can  only  run  a  few  days  in  a  Spring 
freshet,  often  swamps  a  half-township  of  land,  because  somebody's 
great-grandfather  had  a  prescriptive  right  to  flow,  when  lands  were  of 
no  value,  and  saw-mills  were  a  public  blessing. 

There  are  numerous  cases,  within  our  own  knowledge,  where  the  very 
land  overflowed  and  ruined  by  some  incorporated  company,  would,  if 
allowed  to  produce  its  natural  growth  of  timber  and  wood,  furnish  ten 
times  the  fuel  necessary  to  supply  steam-engines,  to  propel  the  machinery 
carried  by  the  water-power. 

Not  satisfied  with  obstructing  the  streams  in  their  course,  the  larger 
companies  are,  of  late,  making  use  of  the  interior  lakes,  fifty  or  a  hun- 
dred miles  inland,  as  reservoirs,  to  keep  back  water  for  the  use  of  the 
mills  in  the  summer  droughts.  Thus  are  thousands  of  acres  of  land 
drowned,  and  rendered  worse  than  useless ;  for  the  water  is  kept  up  till 
Midsummer  and  drawn  off  when  a  dog-day  climate  is  just  ready  to 


342  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

convert  the  rich  and  slimy  sediment  of  the  pond  into  pestilential  vapors 
These  waters,  too,  controlled  by  the  mill-owners,  are  thus  let  down  in 
floods,  in  Midsummer,  to  overflow  the  meadows  and  corn-fields  of  the 
farmer,  or  the  intervals  and  bottom-lands  below. 

Now,  while  we  would  never  advocate  any  attack  upon  the  rights  of 
mill-owners,  or  ask  them  to  sacrifice  their  interests  to  those  of  agricul- 
ture, it  surely  is  proper  to  call  attention  to  the  injury  which  the  produc 
tive  capacity  of  the  soil  is  suffering,  by  the  flooding  of  our  best  tracts, 
in  sections  of  country  where  land  is  most  valuable.  Could  not  mill- 
owners,  in  many  instances,  adopt  steam  instead  of  water-power,  and 
becoming  land-drawling  companies,  instead  of  land-drowning  companies ; 
at  least,  let  Nature  have  free  course  with  her  gently-flowing  rivers,  and 
allow  the  promise  to  be  fulfilled,  that  the  earth  shall  be  no  more  cursed 
with  a  flood. 

We  would  ask  for  the  land-owner,  simply  equality  of  rights  with  the 
mill-owner.  If  a  legislature  may  grant  the  right  to  flow  lands,  against 
the  will  of  the  owner,  to  promote  manufactures,  the  same  legislature 
may  surely  grant  the  right,  upon  proper  occasion,  to  remove. dams,  and 
other  obstructions  to  our  streams,  to  promote  agriculture.  The  rights 
of  mill-owners  are  no  more  sacred  than  those  of  land-owners  ;  and  the 
interests  of  manufactures  are,  surely,  no  more  important  than  those 
of  agriculture. 

We  would  not  advocate  much  interference  with  private  rights.  In 
some  of  the  States,  no  special  privileges  have  been  conferred  upon 
water-power  companies.  They  have  been  left  to  procure  their  right!- 
of  flowage,  by  private  contract  w;  ,n  the  land-owners  ;  and  in  such  States, 
probably,  the  legislatures  would  be  as  slow  to  interfere  with  rights  of 
flow^ge,  as  with  other  rights.  Yet.  there  are  cases  where,  for  the  pre- 
servation of  the  health  of  the  community,  and  for  the  general  conve- 
nience, governments  have  everywhere  exercised  the  power  of  interfer- 
ing with  private  property,  and  limiting  the  control  of  the  owners.  To 
preserve  the  public  health,  we  abate  as  nuisances,  by  process  of  law, 
slaughter-houses,  and  other  establishments  offensive  to  health  and  com- 
fort, and  we  provide,  by  compulsory  assessments  upon  land-owners.,  for 
sewerage,  for  side-walks,  and  the  like,  in  our  cities. 

Everywhere,  for  the  public  good,  we  take  private  property  for  high- 
ways, upon  just  compensation,  and  the  property  of  corporations  is  thus 
taken,  like  that  of  individuals 

Again,  we  compel  adjacent  owners  to  fence  their  lands,  and  maintain 
their  proportion  of  division  fences  of  the  legal  height,  and  we  elect 
fence  viewers,  with  power  to  adjust  equitably,  the  expenses  of  such 


LEGISLATION.  34:3 

fences.  We  assess  bachelors  and  maidens,  in  most  States,  for  the  con- 
struction of  schoolhouses,  and  the  education  of  the  children  of  others, 
and,  in  various  ways,  compel  each  member  of  society  to  contribute  to  the 
common  welfare. 

How  far  it  may  be  competent,  for  a  State  legislature  to  provide  for,  or 
assist  in,  the  drainage  of  extensive  and  unhealthy  marshes  j  or  how 
far  individual  owners  should  be  compelled  to  contribute  to  a  common 
improvement  of  their  lands  •  or  how  far,  and  in  what  cases,  one  land- 
owner should  be  authorized  to  enter  upon  land  of  another,  to  secure  or 
maintain  the  best  use  of  his  o"«rn  land — these  are  questions  which  it  is 
unnecessary  for  us  to  attempt  to  determine.  It  is  well  that  they  should 
be  suggested,  because  they  will,  at  no  distant  day,  engage  much  atten- 
tion. It  is  well,  too,  that  the  steps  which  conservative  England  has 
thought  it  proper  to  take  in  this  direction,  should  be  understood,  that 
•vre  may  the  better  determine  whether  any,  and  if  any,  what  course  our 
States  may  safely  take,  to  aid  the  great  and  leading  interest  of  our 
country. 

The  swamps  and  stagnant  meadows  along  our  small  streams  and  our 
rivers,  which  are  taken  from  the  farmer,  by  flowage,  for  the  benefit  of 
mills,  are  often,  in  New  England,  the  most  fertile  part  of  the-townships — 
equal  to  the  bottom  lands  of  the  West  :  and  they  are  right  by  the  doors 
of  young  men,  who  leave  their  homes  with  regret,  because  the  rich 
land  of  far-off  new  States  offers  temptations,  which  their  native  soil  can- 
not present. 

It  is  certainly  of  great  importance  to  the  old  States,  to  inquire  into 
these  matters,  and  set  proper  bounds  to  the  use  of  streams  for  water- 
powers.  The  associated  wealth  and  influence  of  manufacturers,  is 
always  more  powerful  than  the  individual  efforts  of  the  land-owners. 

Reservoirs  are  always  growing  larger,  and  dams  continually  grow 
higher  and  tighter.  The  water,  by  little  and  little,  creeps  insidiously 
on  to,  and  into,  the  meadows  far  above  the  obstruction,  and  the  land- 
owner must  often  elect  between  submission  to  this  aggression,  and  a 
tedious  law-suit  with  a  powerful  adversary.  The  evil  of  obstruction* 
to  streams  and  rivers,  is  by  no  means  limited  to  the  land  visibly  flowed, 
nor  to  land  at  the  level  of  the  dam.  Running  water  is  never  level,  or 
it  could  not  flow  ]  and  in  crooked  streams,  which  flow  through  meadows, 
obstructed  by  grass  and  bushes,  the  water  raised  by  a  dam,  often  stands 
many  feet  higher,  at  a  mile  or  two  back,  than  at  the  dam.  It  is  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  set  limits  to  the  effect  of  such  a  flowage  Water  is 
flowed  into  the  subsoil,  or  rather  is  prevented  from  running  out ;  the 
natural  drainage  of  the  country  is  prevented;  and  .Hand  which  raisht  welJ 


344:  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

be  drained  artificially,  were  the  stream  not  obstructed,  is  found  to  lie 
so  near  the  level,  as  to  be  deprived  of  the  requisite  fall  by  back  water, 
or  the  sluggish  current  occasioned  by  the  dam. 

These  obstructions  to  drainage  have  become  subjects  of  mucli  atten- 
tion, and  of  legislative  intervention  in  various  forms  in  England,  and 
some  of  the  facts  elicited  in  their  investigations  are  very  instructive. 

In  a  discussion  before  the  Society  of  Arts,  in  1855,  in  which  many 
gentlemen,  experienced  in  drainage,  took  a  part,  this  subject  of  obstruc- 
tion by  mill-dams  came  up. 

Mr.  G.  Donaldson  said  he  had  been  much  engaged  in  works  of  land- 
drainage,  and  that,  in  many  instances,  great  difficulties  were  expe- 
rienced in  obtaining  outfalls,  owing  to  the  water  rights,  on  the  course  of 
rivers  for  mill-power,  &c. 

Mr.  R.  Grantham  spoke  of  the  necessity  of  further  legislation.  "  so  aa 
to  give  power  to  lower  bridges  and  culverts,  under  public  roads,  and 
straighten  and  deepen  rivers  and  streams."  But,  he  said,  authority  was 
wanting,  above  all,  "  for  the  removal  of  mills,  dams,  and  other  obstruc- 
tions in  rivers,  which,  in  many  cases,  did  incalculable  injury,  many 
times  exceeding  the  value  of  the  mills,  by  keeping  up  the  level  of 
rivers,  and*  rendering  it  totally  impossible  to  drain  the  adjoining 
lands." 

Mr.  R.  F.  Davis  said,  ':If  they  were  to  go  into  the  midland  districts, 
they  would  see  great  injury  done,  from  damming  the  water  for  mills." 

In  Scotland,  the  same  difficulty  has  arisen.  "  In  many  parts  of  this 
country,"  says  a  Scottish  writer,  "  small  lochs  (lakes)  and  dams  are 
kept  up,  for  the  sake  of  mills,  under  old  tenures,  which,  if  drained,  the 
land  gained  by  that  operation,  would,  in  many  instances,  be  worth  ten 
times  the  rent  of  such  mills." 

In  the  case  of  the  Rye  and  Derwent  Drainage,  an  account  of 
which  is  found  in  the  14th  Vol.  of  the  Journal  of  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society,  a  plan  of  compensation  was  adopted,  where  it  became 
necessary  to  remove  dams  and  other  obstructions,  which  is  worthy 
of  attention.  The  Commissioners  under  the  Act  of  1846.  removed 
the  mill-wheels,  and  substituted  steam-engines  corresponding  to  the 
power  actually  used  by  the  mills,  compensating,  also,  the  proprietors 
for  inconvenience,  and  the  future  additional  expensiveness  of  the  new 
power. 

"  The  claims  of  a  short  canal  navigation,  two  fisheries,  and  tenants' 
damages  through  derangement  of  business  during  the  alterations,  were 
disposed  of  without  much  outlay  ;  and  the  pecuniary  advantages  of  the 
•»vork  are  apparent  from  th-B  fact,  that  a  single  flood,  such  as  frequently 


LEGISLATION.  345 

overflowed  the  land,  has  been  known  to  dc  more  damage,  If  fairlv 
valued  in  money,  than  the  whole  sum  expended  und^r  the  act." 

Under  this  act,  it  became  necessary  for  the  Commissioners  to  esti- 
mate -.he  comparative  cost  of  steam  and  water-power,  in  order  to  carr^ 
out  thuir  idea  of  giving  to  the  mill-owners  a  steam-power  equivalent, 
to  their  water-power. 

"  As  the  greater  part  of  their  water-power  was  employed  on  corn 
and  flour-mills,  upon  these  the  calculations  were  chiefly  based.  It 
was  generally  admitted  to  be  very  near  the  truth,  that  to  turn  a  pair 
of  flour-mill  stones  properly,  requires  a  power  equal  to  that  of  two- 
and-a-half  horses,  or  on  an  average,  twenty  horses'  power,  to  turn  and 
work  a  mill  of  eight-pairs  of  stones,  and  that  the  total  cost  of  a  twenty- 
horse  steam-engine,  with  all  its  appliances,  would  be  $5,000,  or  $250 
per  horse  power." 

Calculations  for  the  maintenance  of  the  steam-power  are  also  given  \ 
but  this  depends  so  much  on  local  circumstances,  that  English  esti- 
mates \vould  be  of  little  value  to  us. 

The  arrangements  in  this  case  with  the  mill-owners,  were  made  by 
contract,  and  not  by  force  of  any  arbitrary  power,  and  the  success  of 
the  enterprise,  in  the  drainage  of  the  lands,  the  prevention  of  damage 
by  floods,  especially  in  hay  and  harvest-time,  and  in  the  improvement 
of  the  health  of  vegetation,  as  well  as  of  man  and  animals,  is  said  to  be 
strikingly  manifest. 

This  act  provides  for  a  "  water-bailiff/5  whose  duty  it  is  to  inspect 
the  rivers,  streams,  water-courses,  &c.,  and  enforce  the  due  mainte- 
nance of  the  banks,  and  the  uninterrupted  discharge  of  the  waters  at  all 
times. 

COMPULSORY   OUTFALLS. 

It  often  happens,  especially  in  New  England,  where  farms  are  small, 
and  the  country  is  broken,  that  an  owner  of  valuable  lands  overcharged 
with  water,  perhaps  a  swamp  or  low  meadow,  or  perhaps  a  field  of 
upland,  lying  nearly  level,  desires  to  drain  his. tract,  but  cannot  find 
sufficient  fall,  without  going  upon  the  land  of  owners  below.  These 
adjacent  owners  may  not  appreciate  the  advantages  of  drainage  •  or 
their  lands  may  not  require  it ;  or,  what  is  not  unusual,  they  may  from 
various  motives,  good  and  evil,  refuse  to  allow  their  lands  to  be  meddled 
with. 

Now,  without  desiring  to  be  understood  as  speaking  judicially,  we 
know  of  no  authority  of  law  by  which  a  land-owner  may  enter  upon 
the  territory  of  his  neighbor  for  the  purpose  of  draining  his  own  land, 
and  perhaps  no  such  power  should  ever  be  conferred.  All  owners  upon 
streams,  great  and  small,  have  however,  the  right  to  the  natural  flow 
15* 


34:6  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

of  the  water,  both  aba  ;e  and  below.  Their  neighbors  below  cannot 
obstruct  a  stream  so  aiy  to  flow  back  the  wrater  upon,  or  into,  the  land 
above  •  and  where  artificial  water-courses,  as  ditches  and  drains  have 
long  been  opened,  the  presumption  would  be  that  all  persons  benefitted 
by  them,  have  the  right  to  have  them  kept  open. 

Parliament  is  held  to  be  omnipotent,  and  in  the  act  of  1847,  known 
as  Lord  Lincoln's  Act,  its  power  is  well  illustrated,  as  is  also  the  deter- 
mination of  the  British  nation  that  no  trifling  impediments  shall  hinder 
the  progress  of  the  great  work  of  draining  lands  for  agriculture.  The 
act,  in  effect,  authorizes  any  person  interested  in  draining  his  lands,  to 
clear  a  passage  through  all  obstructions,  wherever  it  would  be  wrorth 
the  expense  of  works  and  compensation. 

Its  general  provisions  may  be  found  in  the  15th  Vol.  of  the  Journal 
of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society. 

It  is  not  the  province  of  the  author,  to  decide  what  may  properly  be 
done  within  the  authority  of  different  States,  in  aid  of  public  or  private 
drainage  enterprises.  The  State  Legislatures  are  not.  like  Parliament, 
omnipotent.  They  are  limited  by  their  written  constitutions.  Perhaps 
no  better  criterion  of  power,  with  respect  to  compelling  contribution,  by 
persons  benefitted.  to  the  cost  of  drainage,  and  with  interfering  with 
individual. rights,  for  public  or  private  advantage,  can  be  found,  than 
the  exercise  of  power  in  the  cases  of  fences  and  of  flowage. 

If  we  may  lawfully  compel  a  person  to  fence  his  land,  to  exclude  the 
cattle  of  other  persons,  or.  if  he  neglect  to  fence,  subject  him  to  their 
depredations,  without  indemnity,  as  is  done  in  many  States ;  or  if  we 
may  compel  him  to  contribute  to  the  erection  of  division  fences,  of  a 
given  height,  though  he  has  no  animal  in  the  world  to  be  shut  in  or  out 
of  his  field,  there  would  seem  to  be  equal  reason,  in  compelling  him  to 
dig  half  a  division  ditch  for  the  benefit  of  himself  and  neighbor. 

If,  again,  as  we  have  already  hinted,  the  Legislature  may  authorize 
a  corporation  to  flow  and  inundate  the  land  of  an  unwilling  citizen,  to 
raise  a  water-power  for  a  cotton-mill,  it  must  be  a  nice  discrimination 
of  powers,  that  prohibits  the  same  Legislature  from  authorizing  the 
entry  into  lands  of  a  protesting  mill-owner,  or  of  an  unknown  or  cross- 
grained  proprietor,  to  open  an  outlet  for  a  valuable,  health-giving  sys 
tern  of  drainage. 

In  the  valuable  treatise  of  Dr.  Warder,  of  Cincinnati,  recently  pub- 
lished in  New  York,  upon  Hedges  and  Evergreens,  an  abstract  is  given 
of  the  statutes  of  most  of  our  States,  upon  the  subject  of  fences,  and 
we  know  of  no  other  book,  in  which  so  good  an  idea  of  the  legislation 
on  this  subject,  can  be  so  read  y  obtained, 


LEGISLATION.  347 

By  the  statutes  of  Massachusetts,  any  peiso.ft  may  erect  and  maintain 
a  water-mill,  and  dam  to  raise  water  for  working  it,  upon  and  across 
any  stream  that  is  not  navigable,  provided  he  does  not  interfere  with 
existing  mills.  Any  person  whose  land  is  overflowed,  may,  on  complaint, 
have  a  trial  and  a  verdict  of  a  jury ;  which  may  fix  the  height  of  the 
dam,  decide  whether  it  shall  be  left  open  any  part  of  the  year,  and  fix 
compensation,  either  annual  or  in  gross,  for  the  injury.  All  other  reme- 
dies for  such  flowage  are  taken  away,  and  thus  the  land  of  the  owner 
may  be  converted  into  a  mill-pond  against  his  consent. 

We  find  nothing  in  the  Massachusetts  statutes  which  gives  to  land- 
owners, desirous  of  improving  their  wet  lands,  any  power  to  interfere 
in  any  way  with  the  rights  of  mill-owners,  for  the  drainage  of  lands. 
The  statutes  of  the  Commonwealth,  however,  make  liberal  and  strin- 
gent provisions,  for  compelling  unwilling  owners  to  contribute  to  the 
drainage  of  wet  lands. 

For  the  convenience  of  those  who  may  be  desirous  of  procuring  legis- 
lation on  this  subject,  we  will  give  a  brief  abstract  of  the  leading 
statute  of  Massachusetts  regulating  this  matter.  It  may  be  found  in 
Chapter  115  of  the  Revised  Statutes,  of  1836.  The  first  Section  ex- 
plains the  general  object. 

"  When  any  meadow,  swamp,  marsh,  beach,  or  other  low  land,  shall 
be  held  by  several  proprietors,  and  it  shall  be  necessary  or  useful  to 
drain  or  flow  the  same,  or  to  remove  obstructions  in  rivers  or  streams 
leading  therefrom,  such  improvements  may  be  effected,  under  the  direc- 
tion of  Commissioners,  in  the  manner  provided  in  this  chapter." 

The  statute  provides  that  the  proprietors,  or  a  greater  part  of  them 
in  interest,  may  apply,  by  petition,  to  the  Court  of  Common  Pleas, 
setting  forth  the  proposed  improvements,  and  for  notice  to  the  proprie- 
tors who  do  not  join  in  the  petition,  and  for  a  hearing.  The  court  may 
then  appoint  three,  five,  or  seven  commissioners  to  cause  the  improve- 
ments to  be  effected.  The  commissioners  are  authorized  to  "cause 
dams  or  dikes  to  be  erected  on  the  premises,  at  such  places,  and  in  such 
manner  as  they  shall  direct  •  and  may  order  the  land  to  be  flowed 
thereby,  for  such  periods  of  each  year  as  they  shall  think  most  benefi- 
cial, and  also  cause  ditches  to  be  opened  on  the  premises,  and  obstruc- 
tions in  any  rivers  or  streams  leading  therefrom  to  be  removed." 

Provision  is  made  for  assessment  of  the  expenses  of  the  improvements, 
upon  all  the  proprietors,  according  to  the  benefit  each  will  derive  from  it, 
and  for  the  collection  of  the  amount  assessed. 

"When  the  commissioners  shall  find  it  necessary  or  expedient  to 
reduce  or  raise  the  waters,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  a  view  of  the 
premises,  or  for  the  more  convenient  or  expeditious  removal  of  obstnio- 


348  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

tions  therein,  they  may  open  the  flood-gates  of  any  mill,  or  make  othei 
needful  passages  through  or  round  the  dam  thereof  or  erect  a  temporary 
dam  on  the  land  of  any  person,  who  is  not  a  party  to  the  proceedings, 
and  may  maintain  such  dam,  or  such  passages  for  the  water,  as  long  as 
shall  be  necessary  for  the  purposes  aforesaid." 

Provision  is  made  for  previous  notice  to  persons  who  are  not  par 
ties,  and  for  compensation  to  them  for  injuries'  occasioned  by  the  inter- 
ference, and  for  appeal  to  the  courts. 

This  statute  gives,  by  no  means,  the  powers  necessary  to  compel 
contribution  to  all  necessary  drainage,  because,  first,  it  is  limited  in  its 
application  to  "  meadow,  swamp,  marsh,  beach,  or  other  low  land." 
The  word  meadow,  in  New  England,  is  used  in  its  original  sense  of  flat 
and  wet  land.  Secondly,  the  statute  seems  to  give  no  authority  to  open 
permanent  ditches  on  the  land  of  others  than  the  owners  of  such  low 
land,  although  it  provides  for  temporary  passages  for  the  purposes  of 
"  obtaining  a  view  of  the  premises,  or  for  the  more  convenient  or  expe- 
ditious removal  of  obstructions  therein" — the  word  "  therein"  referring 
to  the  "premises"  under  improvement,  so  that  there  is  no  provision  for 
outfalls,  under  this  statute,  except  through  natural  streams. 

By  a  statute  of  March  28,  1855,  the  Legislature  of  Massachusetts 
has  exercised  a  power  as  extensive-  as  is  desirable  for  all  purposes  of 
drainage,  although  the  provisions  of  the  act  referred  to  are  not,  per- 
haps, so  broad  as  -may  be  found  necessary,  in  order  to  open  outfalls  and 
remove  all  obstructions  to  drainage.  As  this  act  is  believed  to  be  pecu- 
liar, we  give  its  substance  : 

"  An  Act  to  authorize  the  making  of  Roads  and  Drains  in  certain 
cases. 

''SECT.  1.  Any  town  or  city,  person  or  persons,  company  or  body 
corporate,  having  the  ownership  of  low  lands,  lakes,  swamps,  quarries, 
mines,  or  mineral  deposits,  that,  by  means  of  adjacent  lands  belonging 
to  other  persons,  or  occupied  as  a  highway,  cannot  be  approached, 
worked,  drained,  or  used  in  the  ordinary  manner  without  crossing  said 
lands  or  highway,  may  be  authorized  to  establish  roads,  drains,  ditches, 
tunnels,  and  railways  to  said  places  in  the  manner  herein  provided. 

':  SECT.  2.  The  party  desiring  to  make  such  improvements  shall  file 
a  petition  therefor  with  the  commissioners  of  the  county  in  which  the 
premises  are  situated,  setting  forth  the  names  of  the  persons  interested, 
if  known  to  the  petitioner,  and  also',  in  detail,  the  nature  of  the  pro- 
posed improvement,  and  the  situation  of  the  adjoining  lands." 

SECT.  3  provides  for  notice  to  owners  and  town  authorities. 

SECT  4  provides  for  a  heading,  and  laying  out  the  improvement,  and 


LEGISLATION.  349 

assessment  of  damages  upon  the  respective  parties,  "  having  strict  re- 
gard to  the  benefits  which  they  will  receive." 

SECT.  5  provides  for  repairs  by  a  majority  of  those  benefitted;  and 
Sect.  6  for  ajpeals,  as  in  the  rase  of  highways. 

By  an  act  of  1857,  this  act  was  so  far  amended  as  to  authorize  the 
application  for  the  desired  improvement,  to  be  made  to  the  Selectmen 
of  the  town,  or  the  Mayor  and  Aldermen  of  the  city,  in  case  the  lands 
over  which  the  improvement  is  desired  are  all  situated  in  one  town  or 
city. 

It  is  manifest  certainly,  that  the  State  assumes  power  sufficient  to 
authorize  any  interference  with  private  property  that  may  be  necessary 
for  the  most  extended  and  thorough  drainage  operations.  The  power 
which  may  compel  a  man  to  improve  his  portion  of  a  swamp,  may 
apply  as  well  to  his  wet  hill-sides  •  and  the  power  which  may  open 
temporary  passages  through  lands  or  dams,  without  consent  of  the 
owner,  may  keep  them  open  permanently,  if  expedient. 

LAND   DRAINAGE   COMPANIES. 

•Besides  the  charters  which  have  at  various  times,  for  many  centuries, 
been  granted  to  companies,  for  the  drainage  of  fens  and  marshes,  and 
other  lowlands,  in  modern  times,  great  encouragement  has  been  given 
by  the  British  Government  for  the  drainage  and  other  improvement  of 
highlands.  Not  only  have  extensive  powers  been  granted  to  compa- 
nies, to  proceed  with  their  own  means,  to  effect  the  objects  in  view,  but 
the  Government  itself  has  advanced  money,  by  way  of  loan,  in  aid  of 
drainage  and  like  improvements. 

By  the  provisions  of  two  acts  of  Parliament,  no  less  than  $20.000,000 
have  been  loaned  in  aid  of  such  improvements.  These  acts  are  gene- 
rally known  as  PUBLIC  MONEYS  DRAINAGE  ACTS.  There  are  already 
four  chartered  companies  for  the  same  general  objects,  doing  an  immense 
amount  of  business,  on  private  funds. 

It  will  be  sufficient,  perhaps,  to  state,  in  general  terms,  the  mode  of 
operation  under  these  several  acts. 

Most  lands  in  England  are  held  under  incumbrances  of  some  kind. 
Many  are  entailed,  as  it  is  termed:  that  is  to  say,  vested  for  life  hi 
certain  persons,  and  then  to  go  to  others,  the  tenant  for  life  having  no 
power  to  sell  the  property.  Often,  the  life  estate  is  owned  by  one  per 
son,  and  the  remainder  by  a  stranger,  or  remote  branch  of  the  family, 
whom  the  life-tenant  has  no  desire  to  benefit.  In  such  cases,  the  tenant, 
or  occupant,  would  be  unwilling  to  make  expensive  improvements  at 
his  own  cost,  which  might  bene/Si  himself  but  a  few  years,  and  then  go 
into  other  hands. 


350  FARM  DRAINAGE. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  remainder-man  would  have  no  right  to  meddle 
•with  the  property  while  the  tenant-for-life  was  in  possession ;  and  it 
would  be  rare,  that  all  those  interested  could  agree  to  unite  in  efforts  to 
increase  the  general  value  of  the  estate,  by  such  improvements. 

The  great  object  in  view  was,  then,  to  devise  means,  by  which  such 
estates,  suffering  for  want  of  systematic,  and  often  expensive,  drainage 
operations,  might  be  improved,  and  the  cost  of  improvement  be  charged 
on  the  estate,  so  as  to  do  no  injustice  to  any  party  interested. 

The  plan  finally  adopted,  is,  to  allow  the  tenant  or  occupant  to  have 
the  improvement  made,  either  by  expending  his  private  funds,  or  by 
borrowing  of  the  Government  or  the  private  companies,  and  having  the 
amount  expended,  made  a  charge  on  the  land,  to  be  paid,  in  annual  pay- 
ments, by  the  person  who  shall  be  in  occupation  each  year.  Under 
one  of  these  acts,  the  term  of  payment  is  fixed  at  22  years,  and  under 
a  later  act,  at  50  years. 

Thus,  if  A  own  a  life-estate  in  lands,  and  B  the  remainder,  and  the 
estate  needs  draining,  A  may  take  such  steps  as  to  have  the  improve- 
ment made,  by  borrowing  the  money,  and  repaying  it  by  yearly  pay- 
ments, in  such  sums  as  will  pay  the  whole  expenditure,  with  interest, 
in  twenty-two  or  fifty  years  :  and  if  A  die  before  the  expiration  of  the 
term,  the  succeeding  occupants  continue  the  payments  until  the  whoie 
is  paid. 

A  borrows,  for  instance,  $1,000,  and  expends  it  in  draining  the  lands. 
It  is  made  a  charge,  like  a  mortgage,  on  the  land,  to  be  paid  in  equal 
annual  payments  for  fifty  years.  At  six  per  cent.,  the  annual  payment 
will  be  but  about  $63.33,  to  pay  the  whole  amount  of  debt  and  the 
interest,  in  fifty  years.  A  pays  this  sum  annually  as  long  as  he  lives, 
and  B  then  takes  possession,  and  pays  the  annual  installment. 

If  the  tenant  expend  his  own  money,  and  die  before  the  whole  term 
expire,  he  may  leave  the  unpaid  balance  as  a  legacy,  or  part  of  his  own 
estate,  to  his  heirs. 

The  whole  proceeding  is  based  upon  the  idea,  that  the  rent  or  income 
of  the  property  is  sufficiently  increased,  to  make  the  operation  advant- 
ageous to  all  parties.  It  is  assumed,  that  the  operation  of  drainage, 
under  one  of  these  statutes,  will  be  effectual  to  increase  the  rent  of  the 
land,  to  the  amount  of  this  annual  payment,  for  at  least  fifty  years. 
The  fact,  that  the  British  Government,  after  the  most  thorough  investi- 
gation, has  thus  pronounced  the  opinion,  that  drainage  works,  properly 
conducted,  will  thus  increase  the  rent  of  land,  and  remain  in  full 
operation  a  half  century  at  least,  affords  the  best  evidence  possible,  both 
of  the  utility  and  the  durability  of  tile  drainage. 


DRAINAGE  OF  CELLARS.  351 


CHAPTEE  XXII. 

DRAINAGE     OF     CELLARS. 

Wet  Cellars  Unhealthful.  —  Importance  of  Cellars  in  New  England.— A 
Glance  at  the  Garret,  by  way  of  Contrast.—  Necessity  of  Drains. — Sketch 
of  an  Inundated  Cellar.  —  Tiles  best  for  Drains.  —  Best  Plan  of  Cellar 
Drain;  Illustration. — Cementing  will  not  do.— Drainage  of  Barn  Cellars. — 
Uses  of  them. — Actual  Drainage  of  a  very  Bad  Cellar  described. — Drains 
Outside  and  Inside  ;  Illustration. 

No  person  needs  to  be  informed  that  it  is  unhealthful, 
as  well  as  inconvenient,  to  have  water,  at  any  time  of  the 
year,  in  the  cellar.  In  New  England,  the  cellar  is  an 
essential  part  of  the  house.  All  sorts  of  vegetables,  roots, 
and  fruit,  that  can  be  injured  by  frost,  are  stored  in  cellars; 
and  milk,  and  wine,  and  cider,  and  a  thousand  "  vessels  of 
honor,"  like  tubs  and  buckets,  churns  and  washing- 
machines,  that  are  liable  to  injury  from  heat  or  cold,  or 
other  vicissitude  of  climate,  find  a  safe  retreat  in  the 
cellar.  Excepting  the  garret,  which  is,  as  Ariosto  repre- 
sents the  moon  to  be,  the  receptacle  of  all  things  useless 
on  earth,  the  cellar  is  the  greatest  "  curiosity  shop"  of  the 
establishment. 

The  poet  finds  in  the  moon, 

"  Whate'er  was  wasted  in  our  earthly  state, 
Here  safely  treasured — each  neglected  good, 
Time  squandered,  and  occasion  ill-bestowed  ; 
There  sparkling  chains  he  found,  and  knots  of  gold, 
The  specious  ties  that  ill-paired  lovers  hold  ; 
Each  toil,  each  loss,  each  chance  that  men  sustain, 
Save  Folly,  which  alone  pervades  them  all, 
For  Folly  ne^ver  quits  this  earthly  ball 


352  FAEM   DRAINAGE. 

In  the  garret,  are  the  old  spinning  wheel,  the  clock  reel, 
the  linen  wheel  with  its  distaff,  your  grandfather's  knap- 
sack and  cartridge-box  and  Continental  coat,  your  great- 
aunt's  Leghorn  bonnet  and  side-saddle,  or  pillion,  great 
files  of  the  village  newspapers —the  "  Morning  Cry"  and 
"  Midnight  Yell"  besides  worn  out  trunks  and  boxes 
without  number.  In  the  cellar,  are  the  substantiate— 
barrels  of  beef,  and  pork,  and  apples,  u  taters"  and  turnips ; 
in  short,  the  Winter  stores  of  the  family. 

Many,  perhaps  most,  of  the  cellars  in  ]STew  England  are 
in  some  way  drained,  usually  by  a  stone  culvert,  laid  a 
little  lower  than  the  bottom  of  the  cellar,  into  which  the 
water  is  conducted,  in  the  Spring,  when  it  bursts  through 
the  walls,  or  rises  at  the  bottom,  by  means  of  little  ditches 
scooped  out  in  the  surface. 

In  some  districts,  people  seem  to  have  little  idea  of 
drains,  even  for  cellars ;  and  on  flat  land,  endeavor  to  set 
their  houses  high  enough  to  have  their  cellars  above 
ground.  This,  besides  being  extremely  inconvenient  for 
passage  out  of,  and  into  the  house,  often  fails  to  make  a 
dry  cellar,  for  the  water  from  the  roof  runs  in,  and  causes 
a  flood.  And  such  accidents,  as  they  are  mildly  termed 
by  the  improvident  builders,  often  occur  by  the  failure  of 
drains  imperfectly  laid. 

No  child,  who  ever  saw  a  cellar  afloat,  during  one  of 
these  inundations,  will  ever  outgrow  the  impression.  You 
stand  on  the  cellar  stairs,  and  below  is  a  dark  waste  of 
waters,  of  illimitable  extent.  By  the  dim  glimmer  of  the 
dip-candle,  a  scene  is  presented  which  furnishes  a  toler- 
able picture  of  "  chaos  and  old  night,"  but  defies  all  de- 
scription. Empty  dry  casks,  with  cider  barrels,  wash- 
tubs,  and  boxes,  ride  triumphantly  on  the  surface,  while 
half  filled  vinegar  and  molasses  kegs,  like  water-logged 
ships,  roll  heavily  below.  Broken  boards  and  planks,  old 
hoops,  and  staves,  and  barrel-heads  innumerable,  are  buoy- 


DRAINAGE    OF   CELLARS.  353 

ant  with  this  change  of  the  elements;  while  floating  turnips 
and  apples,  with,  here  and  there,  a  brilliant  cabbage  head, 
gleam  in  this  subterranean  firmament,  like  twinkling 
stars,  dimmed  by  the  effulgence  of  the  moon  at  her  full. 
Magnificent  among  the  lesser  vessels  of  the  fleet,  u  like 
some  tall  ad.iriral,"  rides  the  enormous  "  mash-tub,"  while 
the  astonished  rats  and  mice  are  splashing  about  at  its 
base  in  the  dark  waters,  like  sailors  just  washed,  at  mid- 
night, from  the  deck,  by  a  heavy  sea. 

The  lookers-on  are  filled  with  various  emotions.  The 
fanner  sees  his  thousand  bushels  of  potatos  submerged, 
and  devoted  to  speedy  decay  ;  the  good  wife  mourns  for 
her  diluted  pickles,  and  apple  sauce,  and  her  drowned 
firkins  of  butter ;  while  the  boys  are  anxious  to  embark 
on  a  raft  or  in  the  tubs,  on  an  excursion  of  pleasure  and 
discovery. 

To  avoid  such  scenes  as  the  above,  every  cellar  which 
is  not  upon  a  dry  sandbank,  should  be  provided  with  a 
drain  of  some  kind,  which  will  be  at  all  times,  secure. 

For  a  main  drain  from  the  cellar,  four  or  six-inch  tiles 
are  abundantly  sufficient,  and  where  they  can  be  reason- 
ably obtained,  much  cheaper  than  stone.  The  expense  of 
excavation,  of  hauling  stone,  and  of  laying  them,  will 
make  the  expense  of  a  stone  drain  far  exceed  that  of  a 
tile  drain,  with  tiles  at  fair  prices.  The  tiles,  if  well 
secured  at  the  inlet  and  outlet  of  the  drain,  will  entirely 
exclude  rats  and  mice,  which  always  infest  stone  drains  to 
cellars.  Care  must  be  taken,  if  the  water  is  conducted 
on  the  surface  of  the  cellar  into  the  drain,  that  nothing 
but  pure  water  be  admitted.  This  may  be  effected  by  a 
fine  strainer  of  wire  or  plate  ;  or  by  a  cess-pool,  which  is 
better,  because  it  will  also  prevent  any  draft  of  a'r  through 
the  drain. 

The  very  best  method  of  draining  a  cellar  is  that  adopted 
by  the  writer,  on  hi?  own  premises.  It  is,  in  fact,  a  mere 


854:  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

application  of  the  ordinary  principles  of  field  drainage. 
The  cellar  was  dug  in  sand,  which  rests  on  clay,  a  foot  or 
two  below  the  usual  water-line  in  winter,  and  a  drain  of 
chestnut  plank  laid  from  the  cellar  to  low  land,  some  20 
rods  off.  Tiles  were  not  then  in  use  in  the  neighborhood, 
and  were  not  thought  of,  when  the  house  was  built. 

In  the  Spring,  water  came  up  in  the  bottom  of  the  cel- 
lar, and  ran  out  in  little  hollows  made  for  the  purpose,  on 
the  surface. 

Not  liking  this  inconvenient  wetness,  we  next  dug 
trenches  a  few  inches  deep,  put  boards  at  the  sides  to  ex- 
clude the  sand,  and  packed  the  trenches  with  small  stones. 
This  operated  better,  but  the  mice  found  pleasant  accom- 
modations among  the  stones,  and  sand  got  in  and  choked 
the  passage.  Lastly,  tiles  came  to  our  relief,  and  a  perfect 
preventive  of  all  inconvenient  moisture  was  found,  by 
adopting  the  following  plan  : 

The  drain  from  the  cellar  was  taken  up,  and  relaid  18 
inches  below  the  cellar-bottom,  at  the  outlet.  Then  a 
trench  was  cut  in  the  cellar-bottom,  two  feet  from  the 
wall,  a  foot  deep  at  the  farthest  corner  from  the  outlet, 
and  deepening  towards  it,  round  the  whole  cellar,  follow- 
ing the  course  of  the  walls.  In  this  trench,  two-inch  pipe 
tiles  were  laid,  and  carefully  covered  with  tan-bark,  and 
the  trenches  filled  with  the  earth.  This  tile  drain  was 
connected  with  the  outlet  drain  18  inches  under  ground, 
and  the  earth  levelled  over  the  whole.  This  was  done  two 
years  ago,  and  no  drop  of  water  has  ever  been  visible  in 
the  cellar  since  it  was  completed.  The  water  is  caught 
by  the  drain  before  it  rises  to  the  surface,  and  conducted 
away. 

Vegetables  of  all  kinds  are  now  laid  in  heaps  on  the 
cellar-bottom,  which  is  just  damp  enough  to  pack  solid, 
and  preserves  vegetables  better,  in  a  dry  cellar,  than  casks, 
or  bins  with  floors. 


DRAINAGE   OF   CELLARS. 


355 


A  little  sketch  of  this  mode  of  draining  cellars,  repre- 
senting the  celler  referred  to,  will,  perhaps,  present  the 
matter  more  clearly. 


\ 


Fig.  99— DRAINAGE  OF  CELLAB. 

Many  persons  have  attempted  to  exclude  water  from  their 
cellars  by  cementing  them  on  the  bottom,  and  part  way  up 
on  the  sides.  This  might  succeed,  if  the  cellar  wall  were 
laid  very  close,  and  in  cement,  and  a  heavy  coating  of  ce- 
ment applied  to  the  bottom.  A  moment's  attention  to  the 
subject  will  show  that  it  is  not  likely  to  succeed,  as  expe- 
rience shows  that  it  seldom,  if  ever,  does. 

The  water  which  enters  cellars,  frequently  runs  from 


356  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

the  surface  behind  the  cellar  wall,  where  rats  always  keep 
open  passages,  and  fills  the  ground  and  these  passages; 
especially  when  the  earth  is  frozen,  to  the  surface,  thus 
giving  a  column  of  water  behind  the  wall  six  or  eight 
feet  in  height.  The  pressure  of  water  is  always  in 
proportion  to  its  height  or  head,  without  reference  to 
the  extent  of  surface.  The  pressure,  then,  of  the  water 
against  the  cemented  wall,  would  be  equal  to  the  pres- 
sure of  a  full  mill-pond  against  its  perpendicular  darn 
of  six  or  eight  feet  height !  No  sane  man  would  think  of 
tightening  a  dam,  with  seven  feet  head  of  water,  by  plas- 
tering a  little  cement  on  the  down -stream  side  of  it,  which 
might  as  well  be  done,  as  to  exclude  water  from  a  cellar 
by  the  process,  and  under  the  conditions,  stated. 

DRAINAGE   OF   BARN    CELLARS. 

Most  barns  in  New  England  are  constructed  with  good 
substantial  cellars,  from  six  to  nine  feet  deep,  with  solid 
walls  of  stone.  They  serve  a  three-fold  purpose  ;  of  keep- 
ing manure,  thrown  down  from  the  cattle  and  horse  stalls 
above;  of  preserving  turnips,  mangolds,  and  other  vegeta- 
bles for  the  stock  ;  and  of  storing  carts,  wagons,  and  other 
farm  implements.  Usually,  the  cellar  is  divided  by  stone, 
brick,  or  wood  partitions,  into  apartments,  devoted  to  each 
of  the  purposes  named.  The  cellar  for  manure  should 
not  be  wet  enough  to  have  water  flow  away  from  it,  nor 
dry  enough  to  have  it  leach.  For  the  other  purposes,  a  dry 
cellar  is  desirable. 

Perhaps  the  details  of  the  drainage  of  a  barn  cellar  on 
on  own  premises,  may  give  our  views  of  the  best  mode 
of  drainage,  both  for  a  manure  cellar,  and  for  a  root  and 
implement  cellar.  The  barn  was  built  in  1849,  on  a  site 
eloping  slightly  to  the  south.  In  excavating  for  the 
wall,  at  about  seven  feet  below  the  height  fixed  for 
the  sills,  we  came  upon  a  soft,  blue  clay,  so  nearly  fluid 


DRAINAGE   OF   CELLARS.  317 

that  a  ten-foot  pole  was  easily  thrust  down  out  of  sight, 
perpendicularly,  into  it!  Here  was  a  dilemma!  How 
could  a  heavy  wall  and  building  stand  on  that  found- 
ation ?  A  skillful  engineer  was  consulted,  who  had  seen 
heavy  brick  blocks  built  in  just  such  places,  and  who  pro- 
nounced this  a  very  simple  case  to  manage.  "If,"  said 
he,  "  the  mud  cannot  get  up,  the  wall  resting  on  it  cannot 
settle  down."  Upon  this  idea,  by  his  advice,  we  laid  our 
wall,  on  thick  plank,  on  the  clay,  so  as  to  get  an  even 
bearing,  and  drove  down,  against  the  face  of  the  wall, 
edge  to  edge,  two-inch  plank  to  the  depth  of  about  three 
feet,  leaving  them  a  foot  above  the  bottom  of  the  wall. 
Against  this,  we  rammed  coarse  gravel  very  hard,  and  left 
the  bottom  of  the  cellar  one  foot  above  the  bottom  of  the 
wall,  so  that  the  weight  might  counterbalance  the  pressure 
of  the  wall  and  building.  The  building  has  been  in  con- 
stant use,  and  appears  not  to  have  settled  a  single  inch. 

The  cellar  was  first  used  only  for  manure,  and  for 
keeping  swine.  It  was  quite  wet,  and  grew  more  and 
more  so  every  year,  as  the  water  found  passages  into  it, 
till  it  was  found  that  its  use  must  be  abandoned,  or  an 
amphibious  race  of  pigs  procured.  It  was  known,  that  the 
most  of  the  water  entered  at  the  north  corner  of  the 
building,  borne  up  by  the  clay  which  comes  to  within 
three  feet  of  the  natural  surface ;  and,  as  it  would  be  ruin- 
ous to  the  manure  to  leach  it,  by  drawing  a  large  quan- 
tity of  water  through  it  into  drains,  in  the  usual  mode 
of  draining,  it  was  concluded  to  cut  off  the  water  on  the 
outside  of  the  building,  and  before  it  reached  the  cellar. 
Accordingly,  a  drain  was  started  at  the  river,  some  twenty 
rods  below,  and  carried  up  to  the  barn,  and  then  eight 
feet  deep  around  two  sides  of  it,  by  the  north  corner, 
where  most  water  came  in. 

"We  cut  through  the  sand,  and  four  or  five  feet  into  the 
clay,  and  laid  one  course  only  of  two-inch  pipe-tiles  at  the 


358  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

bottom.  As  this  was  designed  for  a  catch-water,  and  not 
merely  to  take  in  water  at  the  bottom,  in  the  usual  way,  we 
filled  the  trench,  after  covering  the  tiles  with  tan,  with 
coarse  sand  above  the  level  of  the  clay,  and  put  clay  upon 
the  top.  "We  believe  no  water  has  ever  crossed  this  drain, 
which  operates  as  perfectly  as  an  open  ditch,  to  catch  all 
that  flows  upon  it.  The  manure  cellar  was  then  dry 
enough,  but  the  other  cellar  was  wanted  for  roots  and  im- 
plements, and  the  water  was  constantly  working  up  through 
the  soft  clay  bottom,  keeping  it  of  the  consistency  of 
mortar,  and  making  it  difficult  to  haul  out  the  manure, 
and  everyway  disagreeable. 

One  more  effort  was  made  to  dry  this  part.  A  drain 
was  opened  from  the  highway,  which  passes  the  barn,  to 
the  south  corner ;  and  about  two  and  a  half  feet  below  the 
bottom  of  the  cellar,  along  inside  the  wall,  at  about 
three  feet  distance  from  it,  on  two  of  the  sides ;  and  an- 
other in  the  same  way,  across  the  middle  of  the  cellar. 
These,  laid  with  two-inch  tiles,  and  filled  -with  gravel, 
were  connected  together,  and  led  off  to  the  wayside.  The 
waste  water  of  two  watering  places,  one  in  the  cellar,  and 
another  outside,  supplied  by  an  aqueduct,  was  conducted 
into  the  tiles,  and  thus  quietly  disposed  of.  The  reason 
why  the  drains  are  filled  with  gravel  is,  that  as  the  soft 
clay,  in  which  the  tiles  were  laid,  could  never  have  the 
heat  of  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  on  its  surface,  there 
might  be  no  cracking  of  it,  sufficient  to  afford  passage  for 
the  water,  and  so  this  was  made  a  catch-water  to  stop  any 
water  that  might  attempt  to  cross  it. 

The  work  was  finished  last  Autumn,  and  we  have  had 
but  the  experience  of  a  single  season  with  it ;  but  we  are 
satisfied  that  the  object  is  attained.  The  surface  of  the 
implement  cellar,  which  before,  had  been  always  soft  and 
muddy,  has  ever  since  been  as  dry  and  solid  as  a  highway 
in  Summer;  and  the  root  cellar,  which  has  a  cemented 


DRAINAGE    OF   CELLARS. 


359 


bottom,  is  as  dry  as  the  barn  floor.  The  manure  can  now 
be  teamed  out,  without  leaving  a  rut,  and  we  are  free 
to  confess,  that  the  effect  is  greater  than  we  had  deemed 
possible. 

The  following  cut  will  show  at  a  glance,  how  all  the 
drains  are  laid,  the  dotted  lines  representing  the  tile  drains : 


V 


•*•••». 


Pig.  190. 

The  drain  outside  the  barn,  on  the  right,  leads  from  a 
spring,  some  two  hundred  feet  off,  into  the  cellar  and  into 
the  yard,  and  supplies  water  to  the  cattle,  at  the  points  in- 
dicated. The  waste  water  is  then  conducted  into  the 
drains,  and  passes  off. 


360  FARM   DRAINAGE. 


CHAPTEK  XXIII. 

DRAINAGE     OF     SWAMPS. 

Vast  Extent  of  Swamp  Lands  in  the  United  States.— Their  Soil— Sources  of 
their  Moisture. — How  to  Drain  them. — The  Soil  Subsides  by  Draining. — 
Catch-water  Drains. — Springs. — Mr.  Ruffin's  Drainage  in  Virginia. — Is 
there  Danger  of  Over-draining? 

IN  almost,  if  not  quite  every  State,  extensive  tracts  of 
swamp  lands  are  found,  not  only  unfit,  in  their  natural 
condition,  for  cultivation,  but,  in  many  instances,  by  rea- 
son of  obnoxious  effluvia,  arising  from  stagnant  water, 
dangerous  to  health. 

Of  the  vast  extent  of  such  lands,  some  idea  may  be 
formed,  by  adverting  to  the  fact,  that  under  the  grants  by 
Congress,  of  the  public  lands  given  away  to  the  States  in 
which  they  lie,  as  of  no  value  to  the  Government  and  as 
nuisances  to  their  neighborhood,  in  their  natural  condition ; 
sixty  millions  of  acres,  it  is  estimated,  will  be  included. 

These  are  only  the  public  lands,  and  in  the  new  States. 
In  every  township  in  New  England,  there  are  hundreds 
of  acres  of  swamp  land,  just  beginning  to  be  brought 
to  the  notice  of  their  owners,  as  of  sufficient  value  to 
authorize  the  expense  of  drainage. 

To  say  that  these  swamps  are  the  most  fertile  and  the 
most  valuable  lands  in  New  England,  is  but  to  repeat 
the  assertion  of  all  who  have  successfully  tried  the  expe- 
riment of  reclaiming  them. 

In  their  natural  state,  these  swamps  are  usually  covered 
with  a  heavy  growth  of  timber;  bat  the  greater  portion 


DRAINAGE   OF   SWAMPS.  36'1 

of  them  have  been  partially  cleared,  and  many  of  them 
are  mowed,  producing  a  coarse,  wild,  and  nearly  worth- 
less grass. 

The  soil  of  these  tracts  is  usually  a  black  mud  or  peat, 
partly  the  product  of  vegetable  growth  arid  decay  on  the 
spot,  and  partly  the  deposit  of  the  lighter  portion  of  the 
upland  soil,  brought  down  by  the  washing  of  showers, 
and  by  spring  freshets.  The  leaves  of  the  surrounding 
forest,  too,  are  naturally  dropped  by  the  Autumn  winds 
into  the  lowest  places,  and  these  swamps  have  received 
them,  for  ages.  Usually,  these  lands  lie  in  basins  among 
the  hills,  sometimes  along  the  banks  of  streams  and  rivers, 
always  at  the  lowest  level  of  the  country,  and  not,  like 
Irish  bogs,  upon  hill-tops,  as  well  as  elsewhere.  Their 
surface  is,  usually,  level  and  even,  as  compared  with  other 
lands  in  the  old  States.  Their  soil,  or  deposit,  is  of  various 
depth,  from  one  foot  to  twenty,  and  is  often  almost  afloat 
with  water,  so  as  to  shake  under  the  feet,  in  walking  over 
it. 

The  subsoil  corresponds,  in  general,  with  that  of  the 
surrounding  country,  but  is  oftener  of  sand  than  clay,  and 
not  unfrequently,  is  of  various  thin  strata,  indicating  an 
alluvial  formation.  Frogs  and  snakes  find  in  these  swamps 
an  agreeable  residence,  and  wild  beasts  a  safe  retreat 
from  their  common  foe.  Notoriously,  such  lands  are  un- 
healthful,  producing  fevers  and  agues  in  their  neighbor- 
hood, often  traceable  to  tracts  no  larger  than  a  very  few 
acres. 

In  considering  how  to  drain  such  tracts,  the  first 
inquiry  is  as  to  the  source  of  the  water.  What  makes 
the  land  too  wet  ?  Is  it  the  direct  fall  of  rain  upon  it ; 
the  influx  of  water  by  visible  streams,  which  have  no  suffi- 
cient outlet ;  the  downflow  of  rain  and  snow  water  from 
the  neighboring  hills ;  or  the  bursting  up  of  springs  from 

below  ? 

16 


362  FAJIM   DE  IINAGE. 

Examine  and  decide,  which  and  how  many,  of  these 
four  sources  of  moisture,  contribute  to  flood  the  tract  in 
question.  We  assume,  that  the  swamp  is  in  a  basin,  or, 
at  least,  is  the  lowest  land  of  the  neighborhood.  The 
three  or  four  feet  of  rain  water  annually  falling  upon  it, 
unless  it  have  an  outlet,  must  make  it  a  swamp,  for  there 
can  usually  be  no  natural  drainage  downward,  because  the 
swamp  itself  is  the  lowest  spot,  and  no  adjacent  land  can 
draw  off  water  from  its  bottom.  Of  course,  there  is  lower 
land  towards  the  natural  outlet,  but  usually  this  is  narrow, 
and  quite  insufficient  to  allow  of  drainage  by  lateral 
percolation.  Then,  always,  more  or  less  water  must  run 
upon  the  surface,  or  just  below  it,  from  the  hills,  and 
usually,  a  stream  is  found  in  the  swamp,  if  none  pours 
into  it  from  above. 

The  first  step  is  a  survey,  to  ascertain  the  fall  over  the 
whole,  and  the  next,  to  provide  a  deep  and  sufficient  out- 
let. Here,  we  must  bear  in  mind  a  peculiarity  of  such 
lands.  All  land  subsides,  more  or  less,  by  drainage,  but 
the  soils  of  which  we  are  speaking,  far  more  than  any 
other.  Marsh  and  swamp  lands  often  subside,  or  settle, 
one  or  two  feet,  or  even  more.  Their  soil,  of  fibrous  roots, 
decayed  leaves,  and  the  like,  almost  floats ;  or,  at  least, 
expands  like  a  sponge  ;  and  when  it  is  compacted,  by  re- 
moving the  water,  it  occupies  far  less  space  than  before. 
This  fact  must  be  kept  in  mind  in  all  the  process.  The 
outlet  must  be  made  low  enough,  and  the  drains  must  be 
made  deep  enough,  to  draw  the  water,  after  the  subsidence 
of  the  soil  to  its  lowest  point. 

If  a  natural  stream  flow  through,  or  from,  the  tract,  it 
will  usually  indicate  the  lowest  level ;  and  the  straightening 
and  clearing  out  of  this  natural  drain,  may  usually  be  the 
first  operation,  after  opening  a  proper  outlet.  Then  a 
catch- water  open  drain,  just  at  the  junction  of  the  high 
and  low  land,  entirely  round  the  swamp,  will  be  necessary 


DRAINAGE    OF    SWAMPS.  363 

fo  intercept  the  water  flowing  into  the  swamp.  This  water 
will  usually  be  found  to  flow  in,  both  on  the  surface,  and 
beneath  it,  and  in  greater  or  less  quantities,  according  to 
the  formation  of  the  adjacent  land.  This  catch-water  is 
essential  to  success.  The  wettest  spot  in  a  swamp  is  fre- 
quently, just  at  its  edge,  because  there  the  surface-water  is 
received,  and  because  there  too,  the  water  that  has  come 
down  on  an  impervious  subsoil  stratum,  finds  vent.  It  is 
in  vain  to  attempt  to  lay  dry  a  swamp,  by  drains,  however 
deep,  through  its  centre.  The  water  has  done  its  mischief, 
before  it  reaches  the  centre.  It  should  be  intercepted, 
before  it  has  entered  the  tract,  to  be  reclaimed. 

This  drain  must  be  deep,  and  therefore,  must  be  wide 
and  sloping,  so  that  it  may  be  kept,  open  ;  and  it  should 
be  curved  round,  following  the  line  of  the  upland  to  the 
outlet.  Often  it  has  been  found,  in  England,  that  a  single 
drain,  six  or  eight  feet  deep,  has  completely  drained  a 
tract  of  twenty  or  thirty  acres,  by  cutting  off  all  the  sources 
of  the  supply  of  water,  except  that  from  the  clouds.  This 
kind  of  land  is  very  porous  and  permeable,  and  readily 
parts  with  its  water,  and  is  easily  drained  ;  so  that  the  fre- 
quent drains  necessary  on  uplands,  are  often  quite  unne- 
cessary. Many  instances  are  given,  of  the  effect  of  single 
deep  drains  through  such  tracts,  in  lowering  the  water  in 
wells,  or  entirely  drying  them,  at  considerable  distances 
from  the  field  of  operation. 

When  the  surface-water  and  shallow  springs  have  thus 
been  cut  off,  the  drainer  will  soon  be  able  to  determine, 
whether  he  Jias  effected  a  cure  of  his  dropsical  patient. 
Often  it  will  be  found,  that  deep  seated  springs  burst  up 
in  the  middle  of  these  law  tracts,  furnishing  good  and  pure 
water  for  use.  These,  being  supplied  by  high  and  distant 
fountains,  run  under  our  deepest  drains,  and  find  vent 
through  some  fracture  of  the  subsoil.  They  diffuse  their 
ice-cold  water  through  the  soil,  and  prevent  £be  growtji 


364:  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

of  all  valuable  vegetation.  To  these,  we  must  apply  Elk- 
ington's  system,  and  hit  them  right  in  the  eye!  by  run- 
ning a  deep  drain  from  some  side  or  central  drain,  straight 
to  them,  and  drawing  off  the  water  low  enough  beneath 
the  surface  to  prevent  injury.  A  small  covered  drain  with 
two-inch  pipes,  will  usually  be  sufficient  to  afford  an  out- 
let to  any  such  spring. 

When  we  have  thus  disposed  of  the  water  from  the  sur- 
face-flow, the  shallow  springs  and  the  deep  springs,  and 
given  vent  to  the  water  accumulated  and  ponded  in  the 
'low  places,  we  have  then  accomplished  all  that  is  peculiar 
to  this  kind  of  drainage.  We  have  still  the  water  from 
the  clouds,  which  is  twice  as  much  as  will  evaporate  from 
a  land-surface,  to  provide  for.  We  assume  that  this  can- 
not pass  directly  down  by  percolation,  because  the  subsoil 
is  already  saturated  ;  and  therefore,  even  if  all  the  other 
sources  of  wetness  are  cut  off.  we  "shall  still  have  a  tract 
of  land  too  wet  for  wheat  and  corn.  If  the  swamp  be  very 
small,  these  main  ditches  may  sufficiently  drain  it ;  but  if 
it  be  extensive,  they  probably  will  not.  We  have  seen 
that  we  have  some  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  of  water  to 
be  disposed  of  by  drainage ;  so  much  that  evaporation 
cannot  remove  consistently  with  good  cultivation ;  and, 
although  this  amount  might,  in  a  very  deep  peaty  soil,  per- 
colate to  a  great  distance  laterally,  to  find  a  drain,  yet  in 
shallow  soil  resting  on  a  retentive  subsoil,  drains  might  be 
necessary  at  distances  similar  to  those  adopted  on  wet  up- 
land fields.  To  this  part  of  the  operation,  we  should, 
therefore,  apply  the  ordinary  principles  of  drainage,  put- 
ting in  covered  drains  with  tiles,  if  possible,  at  four  feet 
depth  or  more,  ordinarily,  and  at  distances  of  from  forty 
to  sixty  feet,  although  four-foot  drains  at  even  one  hun- 
dred feet  distance,  in  peat  and  black  mud,  might  often  be 
found  sufficient. 

Through  the  kindness  of  Ecimund  Kuffin,  Esq.,  of  Vir- 


DRAINAGE    OF    SWAMPS.  365 

ginia,  we  have  leen  furnished  with  three  elaborate  and 
valuable  essays,  en  the  drainage  and  treatment  of  flat  and 
wet;  lands  in  lower  Virginia  and  North  Carolina,  published 
in  the  Transactions  of  the  Virginia  State  Agricultural 
Society,  for  1857.  The  principal  feature  of  his  system  is 
based  upon  his  correct  knowledge  of  the  geological  form- 
ation of  that  district ;  of  the  fact  in  particular,  that,  under- 
lying the  whole  of  that  low  country,  there  is  a  bed  of  pure 
sand  lying  nearly  level,  and  filled  with  water,  which  may 
be  drawn  down  by  a  few  large  deep  drains,  thus  relieving 
the  surface-soil  of  surplus  water,  by  comprehensive  but 
simple  means. 

We  have  before  referred  to  Mr.  Ruffin  as  the  publisher, 
more  than  twenty  years  ago,  of  "  Elkington's  Theory  and 
Practice  of  Draining,  &c.,  by  Johnstone;"  and  we  find  in 
his  recent  essays,  evidence  of  how  thoroughly  practical 
he  has  made  the  system  of  Elkington  in  his  own  State. 
Indeed,  we  know  of  no  other  American  writer  who  re- 
cords any  instance  of  marked  success, in  the  use  of  Elking- 
ton's peculiar  idea  of  releasing  pent  up  waters  by  boring. 
Mr.  Ruffin,  however,  has  applied,  with  great  success,  this 
principle  of  operation,  to  the  saturated  sand-beds  which 
underlie  the  tracts  of  low  land  in  his  district  of  country. 
These  water-beds  in  the  sand  lie  at  depths  varying  usually 
from  four  to  eight  feet  below  the  surface.  This  surface 
stratum  is  comparatively  compact,  and  very  slowly  pervi- 
ous to  water  before  it  is  drained.  The  water  from  below, 
is  constantly  pressing  slowly  up  through  it,  of  course  pre- 
venting any  downward  percolation  of  the  rain-water.  By 
running  deep  drains  at  wide  intervals,  and  boring  down 
through  this  surface  stratum  with  an  auger,  the  pent  up 
water  below  finds  vent  and  gushes  up  in  copious  springs 
through  the  holes,  and  flows  off  without  coming  nearer  to 
the  surface  than  the  bottom  of  the  drains ;  thus  relieving 
the  pressure  upward,  and  lowering  the  water-line  in  pro- 
portion to  the  depth  of  the  drains. 


FARM   DRAINAGE. 

Mr.  Ruffin  gives  an  instance  of  the  drying  tip  of  a  well 
half  a  mile  distant,  by  cutting  a  deep  drain  into  this  sand- 
bed,  and  thus  lowering  its  water-line. 

No  doubt  in  many  localities  in  our  country,  a  competent 
geological  knowledge  may  detect  formations  where  this 
principle  of  drainage  may  be  applied  with  perfect  success, 
and  with  great  economy. 

Is  there  danger  of  over-draining  swamp  lands?  In 
speaking  of  the  injury  by  drainage,  we  have  treated  of  this 
question. 

Our  conclusions  may  be  briefly  stated  here.  There  is 
an  impression  among  English  writers,  that  light  peaty  soils 
may  be  too  much  drained  ;  but  many  distinguished  drain- 
ers doubt  the  proposition.  No  doubt  there  are  soils  too  por- 
ous and  light  to  be  productive,  when  first  drained.  They 
may  require  a  season  or  two  to  become  compact,  and  may 
require  sand,  or  clay,  or  gravel,  to  give  them  the  requisite 
density;  but  these  soils  would,  we  believe, -be  usually 
unproductive  if  shallow  drained. 

In  short,  our  idea  is,  that,  in  general,  a  soil  so  consti- 
tuted as  to  be  productive  under  any  circumstances,  will 
retain,  by  attraction,  moisture  enough  for  the  crops,  though 
intersected  by  four-foot  drains  at  usual  distances;  and  that 
cold  water  pumped  up  to  the  roots  from  a  stagnant  pool 
at  the  bottom,  is  not,  either  in  nature  or  art,  a  successful 
method  of  irrigation. 

Still  we  believe  that  peaty  soils  may  be  usually  drained 
at  greater  distances,  or  by  shallower  drains,  than  most  up- 
lands, because  of  their  more  porous  nature  ;  and  we  should 
advise  inexperienced  persons  not  to  proceed  with  a  lavish 
expenditure  of  labor  to  put  in  parallel  drains  at  short  dis- 
tances, till  they  have  watched,  for  a  season,  the  operation 
of  a  cheaper  system.  They  may  thus  attain  the  desired 
object,  with  the  smallest  expense.  If  the  first  drains  are 
judiciously  placed,  and  are  found  insufficient,  others  may 
be  laid  between  the  first,  until  the  drainage  is  complete. 


AMERICAN  EXPERIMENTS.  367 


CHAPTEE   XXI Y. 

AMERICAN  EXPERIMENTS   IN   DRAINAGE — DRAINAGE  IN 
IRELAND. 

Statement  of  B.  F.  Nourse,  of  Maine. — Statement  of  Shedd  and  Edson,  of  Mass. 
— Statement  of  H.  F.  French,  of  New  Hampshire. — Letter  of  Wm.  Boyle, 
Albert  Model  Farm,  Glasnevin,  Ireland. 

IT  was  part  of  the  original  plan  of  this  work,  to  give  a 
large  number  of  statements  from  American  farmers  of  their 
success  in  drainage ;  but,  although  the  instances  are  abun- 
dant, want  of  space  limits  us  to  a  few.  These  are  given 
with  such  diagrams  as  will  not  only  make  them  intelli- 
gible, but,  it  is  hoped,  will-also  furnish  good  examples  of 
the  arrangement  and  modes  of  executing  drains,  and  of 
laying  them  down  upon  plans  for  future  reference.  The 
mode  adopted  by  Shedd  and  Edson,  of  indicating  the  size 
of  the  pipes  used,  by  the  number  of  dots  in  the  lines  of 
drains,  is  original  and  convenient.  It  will  be  seen  by 
close  attention,  that  a  two-inch  pipe  is  denoted  by  dots  in 
pairs,  a  three-inch  pipe  by  dots  in  threes,  and  so  on. 

It  is  believed  that  Mr.  bourse's  experiment  is  one  of 
the  most  thorough  and  successful  works  of  drainage  yet 
executed  in  America.  His  plan  is  upon  page  195. 

STATEMENT   OF  B.    F.    NOURSE,    ESQ. 

GOODALES  CORNER,  ORRINGTON,  ME., 

Sept.  1st,  1858. 

MY  DEAR  SIR  • — So  much  depends  upon  the  preliminary  surveys  and 
u  levels "  for  conducting  works  of  thorough-draining  and  irrigation 
cheaply,  yet  to  obtain  the  most  beneficial  results,  that  a  competent  pel 


FARM    DRAINAGE. 

son,  such  as  an  engineer  or  practiced  land-drainer,  should  be  employed 
to  make  them,  if  one  can  be  obtained.  Unfortunately  for  me,  when  I 
began  this  operation,  some  years  ago,  there  were  no  such  skilled  per* 
sons  in  the  country,  or  I  could  learn  of  none  professionally  such,  and 
was  forced  to  do  my  own  engineering.  Having  thus  practically  acquired 
some  knowledge  of  it,  I  use  and  enjoy  a  Summer  vacation  from  other 
pursuits,  in  the  prosecution  of  this  j  and  this  employment,  for  the  last  few 
weeks,  has  delayed  my  answer  to  your  inquiries.  Nor  could  I  sooner 
arrive  at  the  figures  of  cost,  extent,  &c.,  of  this  season's  work. 

This  is  expected  to  be  completed  in  ten  days,  and  then  I  shall  have 
laid,  of 

Stone  drains,  including  mains 702  rods 

Tile  drains  (two  inches,  or  larger) 1 043     " 

In  all. 1745     " 

or,  about  five  and  one-half  miles,  laying  dry,  satisfactorily r,  about  thirty- 
five  acres.  The  character  and  extent  of  the  work  will  better  appear  by 
reference  to  the  plan  of  the  farm  which  I  send  with  this  for  your  in- 
spection. 

The  earlier  portion  was  fairly  described  by  the  Committee  of  the 
Bangor  Hort.  Soc. — (See  Report,  for  1856,  of  the  Maine  Board  of  Agri- 
culture.) It  was  far  too  costly,  as  usual  in  works  of  a  novel  character 
conducted  without  practical  knowledge.  No  part  of  my  draining, 
even  that  of  this  season,  has '  been  done  so  cheaply  as  it  ought  to  be 
done  in  Maine,  and  will  be  done  when  tiles  can  be  bought  at  fair  prices 
near  at  hand.  I  call  your  attention  particularly  to  this,  because  the 
magnitude  of  the  cost,  as  I  represent  it,  ought  not  to  be  taken  as  a  ne- 
cessary average,  or  standard  outlay  per  acre,  by  any  one  contemplating 
similar  improvement,  when  almost  any  farmer  can  accomplish  it  equally 
well  at  far  less  cost.  My  unnecessary  expenditures  will  not  have  been 
in  vain,  if  they  serve  as  a  finger-post  to  point  others  in  a  profitable  way. 

My  land  had  upon  its  surface,  and  mingled  in  its  super  soil,  a 
large  quantity  of  stones,  various  in  size,  from  the  huge  boulders,  re- 
quiring several  blasts  of  powder  to  reduce  them  to  movable  size,  to  the 
rubble  stones  which  were  shoveled  from  the  cart  into  the  drains.  To 
make  clean  fields  all  these  had  to  be  rer  loved,  besides  the  many  <:  heaps  J> 
which  had  been  accumulated  by  the  industry  of  my  predecessors.  A 
tile-drain  needs  no  addition  of  stone  above  the  pipe;  indeed,  the  stone 
may  be  a  positive  injury,  as  harboring  field  vermin,  or,  if  allowed  to 
come  within  two  feet  of  the  surface,  as  obstructing  deep  tillage,  and 
favoring  the  access  of  particles  of  soil  upon  or  into  the  tile  with  the 


AMERICAN    EXPERIMENTS.  369 

rapid  access  of  water  which  they  promote.  Carefully  placed  to  tli3 
depth  of  six  or  ?ight  inches  in  a  fcur-foot  drt  n,  quite  small  stones  arc, 
perhaps,  useful,  and  they  certainly  facilitate  i.ie  drawing  of  water  from 
the  surface.  Such  was,  and  still  is,  with  many,  the  prescribed  method 
of  best  drainage  in  Scotland,  and  some  parts  of  England.  The  in- 
creased cost  of  adding  the  stone  above  the  tile  is  obvious  :  and  when 
the  width  of  that  drain  i-s  enlarged  to  receive  them,  the  cost  is  mate- 
rially enhanced.  ¥"et  such  has  been  my  practice,  at  first,  under  the  im- 
pression of  its  necessity,  and  all  the  time  from  a  desire  to  put  to  use,  and 
out  of  sight,  the  small  stones  with  which  I  was  favored  in  such  abun 
dance.  The  entire  cost  of  moving,  and  bringing  more  than  2.500  heavj 
loads  of  stone,  is  included  in  the  cost  of  drains,  as  set  down  for  the  1,745 
rods. 

Including  this  part  of  expense,  which  is  never  necessary  with  tile, 
and  cannot  be  incurred  in  plain  clay  soils,  or  clay  loams  free  of  stones, 
the  last  700  rods  cost  an  average  of  97  cents  per  rod  completed.  This 
includes  the  largest  mains  ;  of  which,  one  of  73  rods  was  opened  four  feet 
wide  at  bottom  of  the  trench,  of  which  the  channel  capacity  is  18  X  18 
=  324  square  inches,  and  others  1 10  rods  of  three  and  one-half  and 
three  feet  width  at  bottom,  all  these  mains  being  laid  entirely  with  stone. 
The  remainder  of  the  700  rods  was  laid  with  two-inch  tile,  which  cost 
at  the  farm  eighteen  dollars  per  1,000.  These  last  were  opened  four 
rods  apart,  and  lay  dry  about  seventeen  acres,  at  a  cost,  including  the 
mains,  of  $678.  or  $40  per  acre.  In  this  is  included  every  day's  labor 
of  man  and  beast,  and  all  the  incidental  expenses,  nothing  being  con- 
tributed by  the  farm,  which  is  under  lease. 

I  infer  that  an  intelligent  farmer,  beginning  aright,  and  availing  him- 
self of  the  use  of  team  and  farm  labor,  when  they  can  best  be  spared 
from  other  work — as  in  the  dry  season,  after  haying — or  paying  fair  prices 
for  digging  his  ditches  only,  and  doing  the  rest  of  the  work  from  the 
farm,  can  drain  thoroughly  at  a  cost  of  $20  per  acre,  drains  four  rods 
apart,  and  four  feet  deep ;  or  at  $25  per  acre,  forty  feet  apart,  and  three 
feet  nine  inches  deep 

My  subsoil  is  very  hard,  requiring  constant  use  of  the  pick,  and 
sharpening  of  the  picks  every  day,  so  that  the  labor  of  loosening  the 
earth  was  one-third  or  one-half  more  than  the  throwing  out  with  a 
shovel.  The  price  paid  per  rod.  for  opening  only,  to  the  depth  of  three 
and  a  half  feet  (or,  perhaps,  three  and  three-quarters  average.)  of  a 
width  for  laying  tile,  was  25  cents  per  rod.  At  this  price,  the  indus- 
trious men.  skillful  with  tools,  earned  $1.12  to  $1.25  per  day,  beside* 

16* 


370  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

board  ;  and  they  threw  out  one-third  norc  earth  than  was  really  neces- 
sary, for  c;  room  to  work"  as  they  said  But  they  labored  hard.  14  hours 
per  day.  The  same  men,  working  in  a  soil  free  from  stones,  and  an 
easier  subsoil,  would,  in  the  same  time,  open  from  50  to  100  per  cent, 
more  length  of  ditch. 

The  greater  part  of  these  drains  were  laid  four  rods  apart.  When 
first  trying  this  distance  upon  a  field,  of  which  the  soil  was  called 
'•'  springy  and  cold,"  and  was  always  too  wet  in  the  Spring  and  early 
Summer  for  plowing,  a  partial,  rather  than  "  thorough"  drainage  was 
attempted,  with  the  design,  at  some  future  day,  to  lay  intermediate 
drains.  The  execution  of  that  design  may  yet  appear  expedient, 
although  the  condition  of  soil  already  obtained,  is  satisfactory  beyond 
expectation. 

Owing  to  the  excess  of  water  that  saturated  the  soil  in  Spring  and 
Fall,  the  former  proprietors  of  the  farm  had  not  attempted  the  cultiva- 
tion of  the  field  alluded  to,  for  many  years.  Originally  producing 
aeavy  crops  of  hay,  it  had  been  mowed  for  thirty  years  or  more,  and 
was  a  good  specimen  of  "exhausted  land,"  yielding  one-half  or  three- 
fourths  of  a  ton  of  hay  per  acre.  This  field  is  designated  in  the  plan, 
as  the  "barley  field,  1858,"  lies  south-west  of  the  dwelling-house,  and 
contains  nearly  six  acres.  Its  northerly  half,  being  the  lower  end  of 
the  field,  was  drained  in  1855,  having  been  Summer-plowed,  and 
Bowed  with  buckwheat,  which  was  turned  under,  when  in  flower,  as  a 
fallow  crop.  The  other  half  was  drained  in  1856;  plowed  and  sub- 
soiled  the  same  Fall.  In  1857.  nearly  the  whole  field  was  planted  with 
roots — potatoes,  rutabagas,  mangolds,  carrots,  English  turnips,  &c. — and 
one  acre  in  corn.  For  these  crops,  fair  dressings  of  manure  were  ap- 
plied— say  ten  or  twelve  cartloads  of  barn-manure  plowed  in.  and  one 
hundred  pounds  of  either  guano  or  bone-dust  harrowed  in,  or  strewed  in 
the  drill,  for  each  acre  ;  about  fifteen  loads  per  acre  of  seasoned  muck  or 
peat  were  a-lso  plowed  in.  There  was  a  good  yield  of  all  the  roots  ;  for 
the  corn,  the  season  was  unfavorable  Last  Spring,  a  light  dressing  of 
manure,  but  all  that  we  could  afford,  was  applied,  the  whole  well 
ploughed,  harrowed,  seeded  to  grass  with  barley,  harrowed,  and  rolled. 
The  barley  was  taken  off  last  week;  and,  from  the  five  and  three-quar- 
ter acres,  seventeen  heavy  loads  were  hauled  into  the  barn,  each  esti- 
mated ti  exceed  a  ton  in  weight.  The  grain  from  a  measured  acre 
was  put  apart  to  be  separately  threshed,  and  I  will  advise  of  its  yield 
when  ascertained.*  This  was  said,  by  the  many  farmers  who  saw  it, 

*  This  was  threshed  about  the  middle  of  November,  and  yielded  "51  bushels,  round 
measure."  The  entire  field  averaged  45  bushels  per  acre. 


AMERICAN   EXPERIMENTS.  371 

including  some  from  the  Western  States,  to  be  the  "  handsomest  field  of 
grain"  they  had  ever  seen.  The  young  grass  looks  well:  and  I  hope, 
next  Summer,  to  report  a  good  cut  of  "  hay  from  drained  land." 

Last  Winter,  there  were  no  snows  to  cover  the  ground  for  sleighing 
until  March  j  and,  lying  uncovered,  our  fields  were  all  frozen  to  an  un- 
usual depth.  But,  our  drains  did  not  cease  to  rv.n  through  the  Winter. 
And  Mr.  0.  W.  Straw,  who  works  the  farm,  and  was  requested  to  note 
the  facts  accurately,  wrote  to  me  this  Spring,  "  the  frost  came  out  of 
the  drained  land  about  one  week  first "  (that  is,  earlier  than  from  the 
undrained  land  adjacent) ;  and,  "  in  regard  to  working  condition,  the 
drained  land  was  in  advance  of  the  undrained,  ten  days,  at  least."  The 
absence  of  snow  permitting  this  unusual  depth  of  frost,  had  caused  a 
rare  equality  of  condition  the  last  Spring,  because,  until  the  frost  was 
out,  the  drains  would  not  draw  surface-water.  Usually,  when  early 
snows  have  fallen  to  protect  the  ground,  and  it  remains  covered  through 
the  Winter,  the  frost  goes  off  with  the  snow,  or  earlier,  and,  within  a 
few  days,  the  land  becomes  in  good  condition  for  plowing — quite  two 
weeks  earlier  than  the  driest  of  my  undrained  fields,  or  any  others  in  the 
vicinity. 

These  remarks  apply  to  land  in  which  the  drains  are  four  rods  apart. 
The  farm  lies  with  an  inclination  northerly  and  easterly,  the  fall  vary- 
ing from  1  in  33  to  1  in  8;  that  in  most  of  the  drains  laid  four  rods 
apart,  being  about  1  in  25.  The  drains  in  the  "  barley  field"  fall  1  in 
27,  average,  all  affording  a  rapid  run  of  water,  which,  from  the 
mode  of  construction,  and  subsequent  subsoiling,  finds  ready  access  to 
the  drain-channels.  Hence,  we  never  observe  running  water  upon  the 
surface  of  any  of  our  drained  lands,  either  during  the  heaviest  rains,  or 
when  snows  are  melting,  and  the  wasteful  "  washing"  from  the  sur- 
face, that  formerly  injured  our  plowed  grounds,  has  ceased. 

It  is  fair  to  suppose  that  it  is  the  considerable  descent  which  renders 
the  drains  so  effectual  at  four  rods  apart ;  and  that  where  there  is  but 
slight  fall,  other  circumstances  being  the  same,  it  would  be  necessary 
to  lay  drains  much  nearer,  for  equal  service. 

The  results  of  one  man's  experiments,  or  practice,  whether  of  success 
or  failure,  should  not  be  conclusive  to  another,  unless  all  the  circum- 
stances are  identical.  These  are  ever  varying  from  one  farm  to  another; 
and  only  a  right  understanding  of  the  natural  laws  or  principles  brought 
into  use,  can  determine  what  is  best  in  each  case.  Therefore,  a  de* 
scription  of  the  methods  I  have  used,  or  any  detailed  suggestions  I  may 
give,  as  the  result  of  experience,  wotld  not  be  worth  much,  unless 
tested  by  fhe  well-ascertained  rules  applicable  to  them,  which  men  of 


372  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

science  and  skill  have  adopted  and  proved,  by  the  immensely  extended 
draining  operations  in  Great  Britain,  and  those  begun  in  this  country. 
These  are  now  given  in  elaborate  treatises,  and  quoted  in  agricultural 
journals.  But  they  should  be  made  familiar  to  every  farmer,  in  all 
their  practical  details,  and  with  methods  suited  to  our  country,  where 
labor  is  dear  and  land  cheap,  as  contrasted  with  the  reversed  conditions 
in  England,  where  the  practice  of  '•  thorough-draining"  has  so  generally 
obtained,  and  has  so  largely  improved  the  conditions  of  both  landlord 
and  tenant.  Your  book  will  do  this,  and  thus  do  a  great  good  ;  for 
draining  will  greatly  enlarge  the  productive  capacity  of  our  land,  and, 
consequently,  its  value,  while  it  will  render  labor  more  effective  and 
more  remunerative  to  the  employer  and  the  employed. 

The  fact  of  increased  production  from  a  given  quantity  of  land,  by 
draining,  being  ascertained  beyond  question,  and  the  measure  of  that 
increase,  at  its  minimum,  being  more  than  the  interest  at  six  per  cent. 
upon  the  sum  required  to  effect  it — even  at  $50  per  acre — the  question 
of  expediency  is  answered.  To  the  owner  of  tillage  lands  there  is  no 
other  such  safe,  sure,  and  profitable  investment  for  his  money.  He 
lodges  it  in  a  bank  that  will  never  suspend  payments,  and  from  which 
better  than  six  per  cent,  dividend  can  be  received  annually. 

Very  truly,  yours,  B.  F.  NOURSE. 

Hon.  H.  F.  FRENCH,  Exeter,  N.  H. 

STATEMENT   OF   SHEDD  AND   EDSON. 

BOSTON,  February  1,  1859. 

DEAR  SIR  : — The  plan  for  a  system  of  thorough  drainage,  a  copy 
of  which  we  send  you  herewith;  was  executed  for  Mr.  I.  P.  Rand,  of 
Roxbury. 

An  outfall  was  obtained,  at  the  expense  of  considerable  labor,  by 
deepening  the  Roxbury  and  Dorchester  Brook  for  a  distance  of  nearly 
a  quarter  of  a  mile,  about  four  hundred  feet  of  which  was  through  a 
rocky  bottom,  which  required  some  blasting.  The  fall  thus  obtained 
was  only  about  two  inches  in  the  whole  distance. 

r  The  fall  which  can  be  obtained  for  the  main  drain  is  less  than  two 
inches  per  hundred  feet,  but  the  lateral  drains  entering  into  the  main, 
will  have  a  fall  varying  from  two  inches  to  a  foot  per  hundred. 

The  contour  lines,  or  lines  traced  along  the  ground,  intersecting 
points  on  an  equal  level,  are  drawn  on  this  plan,  showing  a  fall  of  four- 
tenths  of  a  foot,  each  line  beir*  in  every  part  four-tenths  of  afoot 
lower  than  ths  line  above  it.  Where  the  lines  are  near  together,  xhe 
fall  is  greater,  as  a  less  horizontal  distance  is  passed  over  before  rea«?li 
ing  a  point  which  is  four-tenths  lower  than  the  line  above. 


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AMERICAN    EXPERIMENTS.  373 

It  will  be  seen  by  the  plan,  that  the  fall  in  the  line  occupied  by  the 
main  drain  is  very  slight,  while  the  side  drains  have  a  fall  much 
greater. 

The  lateral  drains  are  run  in  the  line  of  steepest  descent,  which  is, 
of  course,  at  right  angles  to  the  general  direction  of  the  contour  lines. 

The  water  from  the  entire  system  is  collected,  and  escapes  at  one  out- 
let into  the  brook. 

A  peep  hole  is  placed  at  the  intersection  of  the  sub-main  drain  with 
the  main,  which  commands  about  one-half  the  entire  area — the  other, 
half  is  commanded  by  the  outlet. 

Two-inch  tile  will  be  laid  in  the  lateral  drains,  and  three,  four,  and 
five-inch  in  the  sub-main  and  main. 

It  is  quite  indispensable,  to  the  successful  execution  of  a  plan  of 
drainage  on  land  so  level  as  this,  that  careful  measurements  be  made 
on  the  ground  with  an  engineer's  level,  and  such  a  representation  of  its 
surface  projected  as  will  show  to  the  eye  at  a  glance  what  all  the 
natural  inclinations  are.  The  work  can  then  be  laid  out  with  ease  in 
the  best  position,  and  executed  in  a  systematic  manner.  The  time  and 
labor  which  is  devoted  to  such  an  examination  of  the  ground  is  well 
spent,  and.  with  the  knowledge  gained  by  it,  the  work  can  be  carried 
on  with  such  economy  as  to  save  the  original  cost  of  the  examination 
many  times  over.  Very  truly,  yours, 

SHEDD  &  EDSON 

Hon.  H.  F.  FRENCH,  Exeter,  N.  H. 

STATEMENT  OF  HENRY  F.  FRENCH,  OF   EXETER,  N.  H. 

The  drained  field  represented  in  the  plan  (Fig.  102),  contains  wbout 
eight  acres.  1  purchased  it  in  1846.  The  upper  part  of  it  is  sand, 
with  underlying  clay  at  depths  of  from  four  to  ten  feet.  The  field 
slopes  towards  the  river,  and,  on  the  slope,  the  c]ay  strata  coming  out 
to  the  surface,  naturally  bring  out  the  water,  so  that  the  side  hill  was 
BO  wet  as  to  produce  cranberries — quite  too  wet  for  any  hoed  crop.  At 
the  foot  of  the  hill  the  soil  is  a  stiff  clay,  with  veins  of  sand  and  gravel. 
Through  the  centre  was  a  wet  ravine,  which  served  as  a  natural  out- 
let for  the  springs,  and  which  was  so  full  of  black  alders  as  to  make  an 
excellent  cover  for  woodcock.  Until  the  land  was  drained,  this  ravine 
was  impassable  in  the  hay  season  even,  except  by  a  bridge  ^hich  I 
built  across  it.  Now  it  may  be  crossed  at  any  season  and  at  any  point 

I  first  attempted  to  drain  the  wettest  parts  with  brush  drain*,  run- 
ning them  into  the  wet  places  merely,  and  succeeded  in  drying  the  land 
sufficiently  to  afford  good  cr.'ps  of  hay.  I  laid  one  brush-drain  aaros« 


374:  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

the  brow  of  the  hill,  five  feet  deep,  hoping  to  cut  oft'  all  the  witer 
which  I  supposed  ran  along  upon  the  surface  of  the  clay.  This  dried 
the  land  for  a  few  rods,  but  the  water  still  ruined  the  lower  parts  of  the 
field,  and  the  drain  produced  rery  little  effect  upon  the  land  above  it. 
In  1856,  finding  my  brush  drains  quite  insufficient,  I  thorough-drained 
the  side-hill  on  the  lower  part  of  the  plan  at  the  reader's  left  hand, 
at  fifty  feet  distances,  vp  and  down  the  slope,  at  an  average  of  about 
four  feet  depth,  going  five  feet  deep  on  the  brow  of  the  hill,  to  cut 
through  the  brush-drain.  I  used  two-inch  sole-tiles  for  minors,  and 
three-inch  for  the  main. 

The  effect  was  instantaneous.  The  land  which,  in  the  Spring  of 
1856.  had  been  so  wet  that  it  could  not,  even  though  partially  drained 
with  brush-drains,  be  planted  till  the  5th  of  June,  was,  in  1857,  ready 
to  work  as  soon  as  the  snow  was  off.  My  farm  journal  says,  under 
date  of  April  6th,  "  plowed  drained  land  with  double  plow  two  days 
after  a  heavy  storm — dry  enough."  I  spent  that  Summer  in  Europe. 
The  land  was  planted  with  corn,  which  produced  a  heavy  crop.  I 
find  an  entry  in  my  journal,  on  my  return,  "  My  drained  land  has 
been  in  good  condition — neither  too  wet  nor  too  dry — all  Summer." 

In  the  Fall  of  1857.  I  laid  about  170  rods  in  other  parts  of  the  field, 
at  similar  depths  and  distances,  and  in  1858  completed  the  upper  part, 
on  which  is  an  orchard  of  apple  trees.  A  part  of  this  orchard  was 
originally  so  wet  as  to  kill  the  trees  the  first  year,  but  by  brush-drains 
I  dried  it  enough  to  keep  the  next  set  alive.  There  was  no  water 
visible  at  the  surface,  and  the  land  was  dry  enough  for  corn  and  pota- 
toes ;  still  the  trees  looked  badly,  and  many  were  winter-killed.  I  had 
learned  the  formation  of  the  earth  about  my  premises,  of  which  I  had 
at  first  no  adequate  conception,  and  was  satisfied  that  no  fruit  tree 
could  flourish  with  its  feet  in  cold  water,  even  in  Winter.  All  nursery- 
men and  fruit-growers  agree,  that  land  must  be  well  drained  for  fruit. 
I  therefore  laid  four-foot  tile  drains  between  the  rows  of  trees,  in  this 
apparently  dry  sand.  We  found  abundance  of  water,  in  the  driest 
season,  at  four  feet,  and  it  has  never  ceased  to  flow  copiously. 

I  measured  accurately  the  discharge  of  water  from  the  main  which 
receives  the  drainage  of  about  one  and  a  half  acres  of  the  orchard,  at  a 
time  when  it  gave,  what  seemed  to  me  an  average  quantity  for  the  Win- 
ter months,  when  the  earth  was  frozen  solid,  and  found  it  to  be  about 
480  barrels  per  day  !  The  estimate  was  made  by  holding  a  bucket, 
which  contained  ten  quarts,  under  the  outlet,  when  it  was  found  that  it 
would  fill  in  fifteen  seconds,  equal  io  ten  gallons  per  minute;  and  six 
hundred  gallons,  or  twenty  barrels  per  hour,  and  four  hundred  and 
eighty  barrels  per  day. 


AMERICAN    EXPERIMENTS.  376 

I  have  seen  the  same  drain  discharge  at  least  four  times  that  quin- 
iity,  at  some  times  !  The  peep-holes  give  opportunity  for  inspection, 
and  I  find  the  result  to  be,  that  the  water-table  is  kept  down  four  feet 
below  the  surface  at  all  times,  except  for  a  day  or  two  after  severe 
rain-storms. 

There  is  an  apparent  want  of  system  in  this  plan,  partly  to  be 
attributed  to  my  desire  to  conform  somewhat  to  the  line  of  the  fences, 
and  partly  to  the  conformation  of  the  land,  which  is  quite  uneven.  At 
several  points  near  the  ravine,  springs  broke  out,  apparently  from  deep 
fountains,  and  short  drains  were  run  into  them,  to  keep  them  below  the 
surface. 

The  general  result  has  been,  to  convert  wet  land  into  early  warm 
soil,  fit  for  a  garden,  to  render  my  place  more  dry  and  healthful,  and  to 
illustrate  for  the  good  of  the  community  the  entire  efficiency  of  tile- 
drainage.  The  cost  of  this  work  throughout,  I  estimate  at  fifty  cents 
per  rod.  reckoning  labor  at  $1  per  day.  and  tiles  at  $12  per  thousand, 
and  all  the  work  by  hand-tools.  I  think  in  a  few  years,  we  may  do 
the  same  work  at  one-half  this  cost.  Further  views  on  this  point  are 
given  in  the  chapter  on  the  "  Cost  of  Drainage." 

After  our  work  was  in  press,  we  received  from  Mr. 
William  Boyle,  Farmer  at  the  Albert  Model  Farm  in 
Ireland,  the  paper  which  is  given  below,  kindly  sent  in 
reply  to  a  series  of  questions  proposed  by  the  author. 
The  Albert  Model  Farm  is  one  of  the  Government  insti- 
tutions for  the  promotion  of  agriculture,  by  the  education 
of  young  men  in  the  science  and  the  practice  of  farming ; 
and  from  what  was  apparent,  by  a  single  day's  examination 
of  the  establishment  in  our  visit  to  it  in  August,  1857,  we 
are  satisfied  of  its  entire  success.  The  crops  then  growing 
were  equal,  if  not  superior,  to  any  we  have  seen  in  any 
country.  Much  of  the  land  covered  by  those  crops  is 
drained  land;  and  having  confidence  that  the  true  prin- 
ciples of  drainage  for  that  country  must  be  taught  and 
practiced  at  this  institution,  we  thought  it  might  be 
instructive,  as  well  as  interesting  to  the  farmers  of 
America,  to  give  them  the  means  of  comparison  between 
the  system  there  approved,  ani  those  others  which  we 
have  described. 


376  FARM   DRAINAGE. 

Had  the  paper  been  sooner  received,  we  should  have 
referred  to  it  earlier  in  our  book ;  yet  coming  as  it  does, 
after  our  work  was  mostly  in  type,  we  confess  to  some 
feeling  of  satisfaction,  at  the  substantial  coincidence  of 
views  entertained  at  the  Albert  Model  Farm,  with  our 
own  humble  teachings.  With  many  thanks  to  Mr.  Boyle 
for  his  valuable  letter,  which  we  commend  to  our  readers 
as  a  reliable  exposition  of  the  most  approved  principles  of 
land-draining  for  Ireland,  we  give  the  paper  entire  : 

ALBERT  MODEL  FARM,  Glasnevin,  Dublin. 

January  31,  1859. 
To  the  Hon.  HENRY  F.  FRENCH,  Exeter,  N.  H.  : 

SIR  : — Ycur  queries  on  land-drainage  have  been  too  long  unanswered. 
I  have  now  great  pleasure  in  sending  you,  herewith,  my  views  on  the 
points  noted.  *  *  * 

Pray  excuse  me  for  the  delay  in  writing.     I  am,  sir, 

Your  obliged  and  obedient  servant,  WILLIAM  BOYLE. 

LAND    DRAINAGE REPLIES   TO   QUERIES,    ETC. 

Introductory  observations.  Ireland  contains  close  on  to  twenty-one 
millions  of  acres,  thirteen  and  a  half  millions  of  which  were  returned  as 
"arable  land,"  in  1841.  By  "Arterial"  and  thorough-drainage.  &c., 
effected  through  loans  granted  by  government,  the  extent  of  arable  land 
has  been  increased  to  fifteen  and  a  half  millions  of  acres.  The  u  Board 
of  Works"  has  the  management  of  the  funds  granted  for  drainage  and 
land  improvements  generally,  and  competent  inspectors  are  appointed 
to  see  that  the  works  are  properly  executed.  The  proprietor,  or  farmer, 
who  obtains  a  loan  may.  if  competent,  claim  and  obtain  the  appoint- 
ment of  overseer  on  his  own  property,  and  thus  have  an  opportunity 
of  economically  expending  the  sum  which  he  will  have  to  repay  (prin- 
cipal .and  interest)  by  twenty-two  installments.  The  average  cost  of 
thorough-drainage,  under  the  Board  of  Works,  has  been  about  £5  per 
statute  acre.  In  1847,  when  government  granted  the  first  loan  for 
land-drainage,  tiles  were  not  so  easily  obtained  as  at  present,  nor  was 
tile-drainage  well  understood  in  this  country ;  and  the  greater  part  of 
the  drains  then  made — and  for  some  years  after — were  either  sewered 
with  stones,  formed  into  a  conduit  of  various  dimensions,  and  covered 
over  with  finely-broken  stones,  or  the  latter  were  filled  into  the  bottom 
of  the  drain,  to  about  ono  foot  in  depth,  as  recommended  by  Smith,  of 


2  IN   TILE  

3  ,t         M  

PLANK  DRAIN       ,__ 
DITCH  _, 

CONTOUR  LINE    ... 
PEEP  HOLE  o 


DRAINAGE   IN    IRELAND.  377 

Deanston.  The  dimensions  for  minor  drains,  sewered  with  stones  were, 
usually,  three  and  a  half  feet  deep,  fifteen  inches  wide  at  top,  and  three 
to  four  inches  wide  at  bottom  (distance  apart  being  twenty-one  feet) ; 
and  the  overseer  carried  about  with  him  a  wooden  gauge,  of  a  size  to 
correspond,  so  that  the  workmen  could  see  at  a  glance  what  they  had 
to  do.  These  drains  are  reported  to  have  given  general  satisfaction ; 
and  they  were  cheaply  made,  as  the  stones  were  to  be  had  in  great 
abundance  in  almost  every  field.  On  new  land,  trenching  was  sometimes 
carried  on  simultaneously  with  the  drainage  ;  and  it  very  often  hap- 
pened that  the  removal  of  the  stones  thus  brought  to  the  surface,  was 
very  expensive ;  but  they  were  turned  to  profitable  account  in  sewering 
drains  and  building  substantial  fences.  In  almost  every  case  the  drains 
were  made  in  the  direction  of  the  greatest  inclination,  or  fall  of  the 
land  •  and  this  is  the  practice  followed  throughout  the  country.  Some 
exceptions  occur  on  kill-sides,  where  I  have  seen  the  drains  laid  off  at 
an  acute  angle  with  the  line  of  inclination.  It  is  not  necessary  that  I 
should  explain  the  scientific  reasons  for  draining  in  the  direction  of  the 
fall  of  the  land,  as  that  point  has  been  fully  treated  of,  and  well 
illustrated,  in  your  article  already  referred  to.  I  shall  now  pass  on  to 
the  Queries. 

Depth  of  drains,  and  distance  apart.  There  is  still  a  great  diversity 
of  opinion  on  these  points,  and  particularly  in  reference  to  the  drainage 
of  stiff  clay  soils  :  some  of  the  most  intelligent  and  practical  farmers  in 
this  country  hold  to  the  opinion  that,  on  such  soils,  the  maximum  depth 
should  not  exceed  three  feet,  and  the  distance  apart  sixteen  to  twenty 
feet.  On  clay  loams,  having  a  subsoil  more  or  less  free,  the  general 
practice  is,  to  make  the  drains  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  deep,  and  at 
twenty-one  to  thirty  feet  apart.  On  lighter  soils,  having  a  free  subsoil, 
four  feet  deep  and  forty  feet  apart  are  the  usual  limitations.  This  farm 
may  be  taken  as  a  fair  average  of  the  land  in  Ireland,  as  a  test  for  drain- 
age ;  the  soil  is  a  deep  clay  loam ;  the  subsoil  a  compact  mixture  of 
strong  clay  and  calcareous  gravel,  almost  free  from  stones.  Thirty  miles 
of  drains  have  been  made  on  the  farm,  the  least  distance  apart  being 
twenty-one  feet,  and  the  greatest  distance  thirty  feet ;  the  depth  in  every 
case,  three  and  a  half  to  four  feet  for  minor  drains.  This  drainage  has 
given  the  greatest  satisfaction ;  for  although  the  greatest  part  of  the 
work  was  performed  by  the  Agricultural  pupils,  in  training  here,  we 
have  not  had  occasion  to  re-make  a  single  drain,  except  in  oi.e  .nstance, 
where  the  tiles  got  choked,  and  which  I  shall  explain  hereafter. 

Tiles  :  Size.  Shape,  Draining,  Capacity,  fyc.  We  use  circular  pipe 
tiles,  of  inch  and  a  half  bore,  for  all  parallel  drains  whose  length  does 


378  FARM    DRAINAGE. 

not  exceed  one  hunlred  yards,  and  two-inch  pipes  :'or  any  additional 
length  up  to  one  hundred  and  fifty  yards,  the  greatest  length,  in  my 
opinion,  a  parallel  drain  should  reach  before  discharging  into  a  main 
or  sub-main  drain.  We  do  not  find  it  necessary  to  use  collars  on  this 
farm,  as  we  have  firm  ground  to  place  the  tiles  on,  and  we  can  cut  the 
drain  to  fit  the  tiles  exactly.  As  regards  the  size  of  tiles  for  main  and 
sub-main  drains,  that  can  only  be  regulated  by  the  person  in  charge  of 
the  drainage  at  any  particular  place,  after  seeing  the  land  opened  up 
and  the  minor  drains  discharging.  As  a  general  rule,  a  circular  pipe  of 
three  inches  internal  diameter  will  discharge  the  ordinary  drainage  of 
five  or  six  statute  acres,  and  give  sufficient  space  for  the  circulation  of 
air.  It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  this  applies  to  a  district 
where  the  annual  rain-fall  is  from  twenty-six  to  thirty  inches,  that  of 
all  Ireland  being  about  thirty-five  inches  ;  besides,  we  have  not  the 
immense  falls  of  rain  in  a  few  hours  that  occur  in  other  countries. 
All  these  points  should  be  carefully  considered  in  estimating  the  water- 
way for  drainage.  I  have  said  that  collars  are  not  used  with  the  tiles 
on  this  farm,  as  the  bottom  of  the  drains  is  quite  firm  and  even  ]  but, 
where  the  bed  for  the  tile  is  soft,  and  the  subsoil  is  of  a  shifting  nature, 
then  collars  should  be  used  in  every  case.  Collars  cost  about  half  the 
price  of  tiles,  which  they  are  made  to  connect,  so  that  the  use  of  them 
adds  one-third  to  the  expense  of  the  sewering  material  •  and,  as  I  have 
already  pointed  out,  I  think  it  quite  unnecessary  to  use  them  where  the 
subsoil  is  firm,  and  where  the  drain  can  be  bottomed  to  fit  the  tile. 
Where  large  pipes  are  not  to  be  had  conveniently  for  sewering  main  or 
sub-drains,  I  find  a  proportional  number  of  pipes  of  lesser  diameter  to 
answer  perfectly.  It  is  very  desirable  to  provide  branch  pipes  for  con- 
necting the  minor  with  the  main  drains.  The  branch  should  be 
socketed  to  receive  the  end  of  the  last  tile  in  the  minor  drain,  and  the 
point  of  attachment  to  the  main  pipe  may  be  on  the  top  or  on  the  side 
of  the  latter.  If  the  branch  be  made  to  lead  the  water  into  the  side  of 
the  main  pipe,  then  it  should  join  the  latter  at  an  acute  angle,  that  both 
streams  may  meet  with  the  least  possible  opposition  of  forces. 

Fall  necessary  in  Tile  Drainage.  I  consider  one  foot  in  one  hundred 
yards  the  least  fall  to  work  upon  with  safety. 

Securing  Outlets.  All  the  outlets  from  main-drains  should  be  well 
secured  against  the  intrusion  of  vermin,  by  a  wrought-iron  grating, 
built  in  mason-work.  The  water  may  flow  into  a  stone  trough  pro- 
vided with  an  overflow-pipe,  by  which  the  quantity  discharged  may  be 
ascertained  at  any  time,  so  as  to  comp  ue  the  drainage  before  and  aftei 
rain,  &c. 


DRAINAGE   IN   IRELAND.  379 

)  or  Silt  Ponds.  Where  extensive  drainage  is  carried  on  in 
low-lying  districts,  and  the  principal  outlet  at  a  considerable  distance, 
it  may  be  found  necessary  to  have  traps  at  several  points  where  the  silt 
from  the  tiles  will  be  kept.  These  traps  may  be  of  cast-iron,  or  mason- 
work,  cemented ;  and  provision  should  be  made,  by  which  they  can  be 
cleaned  out  and  examined  regularly — the  drainage  at  these  periods  also 
undergoing  inspection  at  the  different  traps. 

Plow- Draining.  WG  have  no  draining-plows  in  use  in  Ireland, 
that  I  know  of  j  the  common  plow  is  sometimes  used  for  marking  off 
the  drains,  cutting  the  sides,  and  throwing  out  the  earth  to  a  considera- 
ble depth,  thereby  lessening  the  manual  labor  considerably.  Efforts 
have  been  made  in  England  to  produce  an  efficient  implement  of  this 
description  ;  but  it  would  appear  there  is  ample  room  for  an  inventive 
Jonathan  to  walk  in  for  a  profitable  patent  in  this  department,  and  thus 
add  another  to  the  many  valuable  ones  brought  out  in  your  great 
country. 

Case  of  Obstruction  in  Tiles.  Some  years  since,  one  of  the  principal 
main-drains  on  this  farm  was  observed  not  discharging  the  water  freely, 
as  it  hitherto  had  done,  after  a  heavy  fall  of  rain  ;  and  the  land  adjoin- 
ing it  showed  unmistakable  signs  of  wetness.  The  drain  was  opened,  and 
traced  to  the  point  of  obstruction,  which  was  found  to  be  convenient  to 
a  small  poplar  tree,  the  rootlets  of  which  made  their  way  into  the  tiles, 
at  the  depth  of  five  and  a  half  feet  and  completely  filled  them,  in  the 
direction  of  the  stream,  for  several  yards.  We  have  some  of  the  tiles 
(horse-shoe)  in  our  museum  here,  as  they  were  then  lifted  from  the 
drain,  showing  clearly  the  formidable  nature  of  the  obstruction. 
Another  serious  case  of  obstruction  has  come  to  my  knowledge, 
occasioned  by  frogs  or  toads  getting  into  the  tiles  of  the  main-drain  in 
large  numbers,  on  account  of  the  outlet  being  insufficiently  protected. 
In  this  case,  a  large  expenditure  had  to  be  incurred,  to  repair  the  dam- 
age done. 

I  have  not  observed  any  case  of  obstruction  from  the  roots  of  our 
cultivated  plants.  It  has  been  said  by  some  that  the  rootlets  of  man- 
gold will  reach  the  drains  under  them ;  and,  particularly,  where  the 
drains  contain  most  water  in  rapid  motion.  I  took  up  the  tiles  from  a 
drain  on  this  farm,  in  '54.  which  had  been  laid  down  (by  a  former 
occupier),  about  the  year  '44,  at  a  depth  not  exceeding  two-and-a-half 
feet,  and  not  one  of  these  was  obstructed  in  the  least  degree,  although 
parsnips,  carrots,  cabbages,  mangolds.  &c.,  had  been  grown  on  thia 
field.  Obstructions  may  occur  through  the  agency  of  mineral  springs  ; 


380  FAKM   DRAINAGE. 

but  very  few  cases  of  tnis  nature  are  met  with,  at  least  in  this  country. 
I  would  anticipate  this  class  of  obstruction,  if  from  the  nature  of  the 
land  there  was  reason  to  expect  it,  by  increasing  the  fall  in  the  drains 
and  having  traps  more  frequent,  where  the  main  outlets  are  at  a  dis- 
tance to  render  them  necessary.  In  rny  opinion,  the  roots  of  trees  are 
the  great  intruders  to  be  guarded  against,  and  more  particularly  the 
soft-wooded  sorts,  such  as  poplars,  willows,  alders,  &c.  The  distance 
of  a  drain  from  a  tree  ought  always  to  be  equal  to  the  height  of  the 
latter. 

Tiles  flattening  in  the  drying  process.  With  this  subject.  I  am  not 
practically  familiar.  In  most  tile-works,  the  tiles,  after  passing  through 
the  moulding-machine,  are  placed  horizontally  on  shelves,  which 
rise  one  above  another  to  any  convenient  height,  on  which  the  tiles 
are  dried  by  means  of  heated  flues  which  traverse  the  sheds  where 
the  work  is  carried  on :  or  they  are  allowed  to  dry  without  artificial 
heat  I  prefer  the  tiles  prepared  by  the  latter  method,  as,  if  sufficient 
time  be  given  them  to  be  well  dried,  they  will  burn  more  equally,  and 
be  more  durable.  The  tiles  will  flatten  more  or  less  for  the  first  day 
or  two  on  the  shelves,  after  which  they  are  rolled.  This  is  done  by 
boys  (who  are  provided  with  pieces  of  wood  of  a  diameter  equal  to  the 
bore  of  the  tile  when  made),  who  very  soon  learn  to  get  over  a  large 
number  daily.  The  -'roller"  should  have  a  shouldered  handle  at- 
tached, the  whole  thickness  of  which  should  not  be  greater  than  that 
of  the  tile.  The  shoulder  is  necessary  to  make  the  ends  of  the  tiles 
even,  that  there  may  be  no  very  open  joints  when  they  are  placed  in  a 
drain.  Once  rolled,  the  tiles  are  not  likely  to  flatten  again,  if  the 
operation  be  performed  at  the  proper  time. 

AB  good  tiles  as  I  ever  saw  were  dried  in  a  different  way,  and  not 
rolled  at  all.  As  they  were  taken  from  the  machine — six  at  a  time — 
each  carrier  passed  off  with  his  tray,  and  placed  them  on  end  carefully, 
upon  an  even  Jloor.  When  five  or  six  rows  of  tiles  were  thus  placed, 
the  whole  length  of  the  drying-house,  a  board  was  set  on  edge  to  keep 
them  from  falling  to  one  side ;  then  followed  five  or  six  other  rows  of 
tiles,  and  so  on,  till  the  drying-ground  was  filled. 

This  was  the  plan  adopted  in  a  tilery  near  Dublin,  some  years  ago. 
It  is  only  a  few  days  since  I  examined  some  of  the  tiles  made  at 
these  works,  which  had  been  taken  from  a  drain,  where  they  had  been 
in  use  for  nine  years  ;  and  the  clear  ringing  sound  produced  by  strik- 
ing them  against  each  other,  showed  what  little  effect  that  length  of 
time  produced  upon  them,  and  how  well  they  had  been  manufactured. 


DRAINAGE    IN    IRELAND.  381 

Cost  of  Tiles.     We  have  recently  paid  at  the  works — 

Foi  1  i  inch  pipes 17s.  6d.  per  thousand. 

"    2  "         25s.  " 

"    3  «         45s.  " 

Each  tile  one  foot  in  length,  and  the  one  and  one-half-inch  pipes  weigh, 
ing  16  cwt.  per  thousand. 

One  of  the  great  difficulties  in  connection  with  tile-making  is,  in 
many  districts,  to  procure  clay  sufficiently  free  from  lime.  Tiles  are 
very  often  sold  by  sample,  sent  a  considerable  distance,  and  it  be- 
comes necessary  to  to  test  them,  which  we  do  (for  lime)  by  placing 
them  in  water  for  a  night ;  and.  if  lime  is  present  in  the  tile,  it  wiL 
of  course,  swell  out,  and  break  the  latter,  or  leave  it  in  a  riddled 
state. 

I  have  now  endeavored  to  answer  the  queries  in  your  postscript, 
and  I  have  carefully  avoided  enlarging  on  some  points  in  them  with 
which  your  readers  are  already  familiar.  If  I  shall  have  thrown  a 
single  ray  of  additional  light  on  this  subject  across  the  Atlantic,  1 
shall  be  amply  repaid  for  any  attention  I  have  given  to  thorough- 
drainage  during  the  past  twelve  years. 

I  should  here  observe  that  I  mislaid  amongst  my  papers  the  por- 
tion of  your  letter  containing  the  queries  (it  was  a  separate  sheet), 
and  it  has  not  as  yet  turned  up,  so  that  I  had  to  depend  on  a  rather 
treacherous  memory  to  keep  the  queries  in  my  mind's  eye.  It  is  highly 
probable,  therefore,  that  I  have  overlooked  some  of  them.  This  circum- 
stance was  the  chief  cause  of  the  delay  in  writing. 

You  are  quite  at  liberty  to  make  any  use  you  please  of  this  com- 
ni  iiiication. 

WILLIAM  BOYLE. 


INDEX 


PAGE. 

Absorption  rf  moisture 303,  304,  822 

"  Fertilizing  substances.. . .  268 

Aeration 269,  276 

Albert  Model  Farm 875 

American  experiments 367 

Anderson,  J.  F 112 

Arrangement  of  drains 173 

Artesian  Wells 83 

Attraction,  adhesive 301 

"          capillary 302 

"         of  soils  for  vapor 304 

Auger,  Elkington's 35,  246 

Bache,  Profc 65 

Back  water 181 

Barn  cellar 356-359 

Bergen,  Mr 199 

Birmingham  spades 240 

Bletonism 36 

Blodgett,  Lorin 51,  59 

Blighl  Captain 24,  27 

Bogs 81 

Boning-rod 284 

Bore,  form  of 129 

Boring 35,  365 

Boring  tools 35,  346 

Boyle,  Wm 375 

Branch  pipes 196,  378 

Bricks,  draining 121,  144 

"  cost  of. 204 

Brush  drains 104,  105 

Capacity  of  pipes 131,  132,  134,  201 

Capillary  attraction 802 

Cellars,  drainage  of 851-359 

Challoner's  Level 235 

Clay  soil 167, 

Clays,  drainage  of 

Clays,  cracking  of. 275,  324-331 

Collars. . .  .47, 126, 127, 128, 219, 316,  320, 378 

Cold  from  evaporation 63,  272 

Cost  of  drainage 211-224,  809,  376 

"      tiles 201-205,  381 

Count  Eumford 272,  273,  287 

Country  Gentleman 16,  198,  829 

Crisp,  Thomas 203 

Custis,  G.  W.P 18 

Dams 333,  347 

^eanston  system 37 

^elafleld 46,  76,  168 

382 


PAGE. 

Denton,  J.  Bailey HI,  161 

"       Letter  from 200 

Depth  of  drains 164-173,  326,  328,  377 

Directions  how  to  lay  drains 252-258 

Dew,  cause  of. 805 

"    increased  by  drainage 284,  306 

"    imparts  warmth 307 

Dew-point 65,  66,  806 

Bickinson,  A.  13 • 103 

Direction  of  drains 146-155 

Distance        "         155-164,  877 

Ditch  diggers 247-251 

Drainage  acts 849 

companies 333 

effects  of. 258-276 

methods  of. 99-120 

water  of 60,  61,  839 

Drainage,  will  it  pay  ? 95 

Drain  bricks 121,  144 

Drains  of  brush 104 

larch  tubes .....Ill 

plug 106 

of  poles 113 

rails 112 

stones 114-119 

wedge 110 

run  before  rain 269,  270 

Drought,  drains  prevent 281-286,  300 

Dry  Wells 197,  198 

Durability  of  drains 141-145 

Elkington's  system 27,  33,  240,  865 

Embankment 18 

Emerson,  E.  W 15,  23 

Engineering. 163,  213 

England 19,  340 

"       wetlandin 89 

English  tools 243 

Evaporation 48,  61,  62,  293-297 

"          cold  from 63,  272,  293-297 

"          from  land 62,  69,  72 

"     water 62,  69,  73 

Excavation 165 

"         cost  of 165,  '201,  214 

table  of 216 

Experiments,  American 867,  376 

Factory  reservoirs 341-343 

Fall  in  drains 174,  378 

Fences 211,  346 

Filtration 41,  60,  61 


INDEX. 


383 


PAGE. 

Filtration  tables  of 70,  71 

Fitzherbert 23 

Flat-bottomed  tiles 129 

Flowage,  effects  of. 333,  341,  343,  346 

Flushing  drains 186 

Freezing  out 75,262 

"       of  pipes 171 

French's  plan 373 

Friction  of  water 131,  133 

Frost 67,  143,  170,  172,  297,  299 

Fruit  trees ...298,  374 

Furrows 195 

Germination 276-281 

Gillis,  Lieut 65 

Gisborne 122,  126 

Gravitation 131 

Grading  drains 283 

Gratings  at  outlets 188 

Great  Jiri tain 89 

wet  lands  in 89 

Greeley,  Horace 88 

Gauge 246 

Haarlaem,  Lake 19 

Headers 153,  154 

Heat  in  wet  land 288-290 

"      water. 272,  273 

Hobbs,  Doctor. 51,  54,  56 

Holyoke,  Doctor. 62 

Horse-shoe  tiles 124 

Implements ....225,252 

Indications  of  moisture 93 

Injury  by  drainage 308,  313 

Ireland,  drainage  in 376 

Irrigation 14 

Irish  spade 238 

Johnson,  B.  P 17 

Johnston,  John    .46,  168,  256,  262,  328,  329 

Johnstone 28,  31,  120 

Joints,  how  covered 255 

"      spacesat ..134,  140 

Junction  of  drains 195,  196 

Keythorpe  system 40 

Klippart,  J.  H 16 

Land  Drainage  Companies 849 

Larch  tubes Ill 

Lardner,  Dr 270 

Laying  out  drains 213,  253 

Laying  tiles 219,  252-258 

Legal  rights  to  water. 85,  86,  846 

Legislation 840 

Levelling  instraments 229-235 

Lincolnshire  fons 19,  810 

Lines,  use  of 233,  253 

Lord  Lincoln's  Act 847 

Madden,  Doctor 276 

Mains,  position  and  size  of. 190-194 

Mangolds,  obstruction  by 816,  817,  379 

Mapos,  Prof 16,  167 

Massachusetts,  laws 84T 

Mechi,  Sheriff 260,  339 

Methods  of  drainage. 99 

Mice 104,  116,  815 

Mill  dams 840-344 

Mill  streams 89,  833 

Minors...  ...194 


PAGE. 

Moisture,  sources  of 78 

Morris,  Edward 60 

Moles 104,  116 

Mole  drains 107 

Mole  Plow 10S 

Moon,  influence  of 306 

Nash,  Prof 199 

Nene  Eiver 337 

New  York  Park 47,  219 

Nourse,B.F 285,299,  367 

1     statement  and  plan  of. .  195,  867,  372 

Obstruction  of  drains 313-32C 

"          bysand 318,821 

"          by  frogs,  &c 183,  315,  379 

"          peroxide  of  iron 317 

"          roots 315,  316,  379 

"          filling  at  joints 319 

Open  ditches 99,  263 

"         objections  to 101,  102 

Opening  ditches 252 

Outfalls 345 

Outlets 176-183,  219,  252,  257,  315,  378 

Overdraining  peats 309,  366 

Parkes,  Josiah 25,  38,  40,  128 

Paul's  ditcher. 250 

Peat  tiles 113 

Peats,  overdraining  of 309,  366 

Peep-holes 187,  188,  321,  373 

Peroxide  of  iron. 317 

Pettibone,J.  S ..329 

Picks 245 

Pipes 47,  122,  123,  144 

"    capacity  of.....  131-138,  159,  191,  193 

"    cost  in  England 201,  204 

"        "       United  States ....  202-205,  218 

"    position  of 190-194 

Pipe  layer 244,  245 

Plans  of  drains 195,  372,  377 

M     importance  of 161 

Plow,  use  of 253,  379 

Plow,  Fowler's  drain 247,  248 

"     Shanghae 109 

Paul's  ditcher. 250 

Eoutts 251 

Plug  drains 107 

Pole  drain 118 

Pratt's  Ditch  digger 248,  249 

Pressure  of  water...  131,  132,  831,  332,  856 

"       waterof 84 

Process  of  draining 252-258 

Puddling 198,  266,  323 

Pulverization 260,  282,  299 

Rain 48,  158,  159,  284 

Rain-fall 50,  153,  378 

Rain-fall,  tables  of 53-60,  70--73 

Relief  pipes 184,  186 

Reservoirs 341,  343 

Ridge  and  furrow 195 

Rolling  pipes 205,  380 

Roots,  length  of 258,  259,  283 

"     obstruction  by 315,  816,  879 

Round  pipes 47,  122 

Rumford,  Count  272,  273,  287 

Ruffin,  Edmund,  Esq 29,  364 

Rye  and  Derwent 344 


Saturation . 


6fl 


384 


INDEX. 


PAGE. 

Scoops 244 

Screens  at  outlets 183 

Season  lengthened 261 

Shallow  drains 168 

Shanghae  plow 109 

Shedd  and  Edson 21,  51,  372 

Shoulder  drain 110 

Shovels 236,  237 

Silt  basin 186,  379 

Sinkholes.....  198 

Size  of  tiles 190,  201 , 377 

Smith,  of  Deanston 26,  37 

Snow,  fall  of        .   59 

Sole-tile 125 

Spades 235,  236,  240-242 

Spirit  level 230 

Springs 78-83 

"     drainage  of. 34 

"     run  before  rain 270-271 

"     how  to  preserve 189 

Staff  and  target 231 

Stagnant  water 93 

Stone  drains 114-119,  377 

"         costof 114,222 

Stones  above  tiles 118 

Streams  affected  by  drainage 333-340 

Subsoil  plow  ... 169 

Subsoiler,  Marcus  and  Co/s 107 

Surface  washing  prevented 261 

Swallow-holes 197,  198 

Swamps 91,  360 

"     drainage  of. 360-363 

Swamp-lands 17 

Swan,  K.  J 168 

System,  importance  of. 160,  173 

Tables  of  evaporation 72,  73 

"        excavation 216 

"       filtration 70,  71 

"       rain-fall. 53-59,  71-73 

"       of  tiles  to  acre 220 

"       number  of  rods 220 

capacity  of  pipes 135-188 

23 


PAGR 

Temperature 67,  189,  280,  287-30C 

"          underground...   187,288,291 

"          for  vegetation 271 

Thermometer,  wet  and  dry 64,  65 

Thomas,  J.  J -229 

Tile-drainage 120 

Tiles,  cost  in  England •. 201,  212 

"      United  States 201-205 

forms  of 122-130 

length  of 221 

size  of. 130-138 

weight  of. 219 

number  to  the  acre 2.0 

Tile  machines 46,  202-210 

Tile-works 47,  121 

Tools 225-246 

Tops  and  bottoms 140,  319,  379 

Traps 185,  186,  379,  380 

Velocity  of  water 131 

Vermin 104 

Virginia 18,  364 

Warder,  Doctor 346 

"Water,  how  it  enters 138,  314,  320 

"      stagnant ..98 

"      of  drainage,  uses  of. 189,  339 

"      velocity  of 131 

"Water  passage 129 

Water-line 51,  139 

Water-powers 333,  335,  341-345 

Water  of  pressure 84,  161 

Water,  pressure  of. 84,  140,  141 

"      rights  in 85,     86 

Wedge  drain 110,  236 

Weight  of  tiles 219,  381 

Wells,  drainage  into 197-199 

"     dried  by  drains 85,  866 

Well  and  relief-pipe 184-186 

Well  with  silt  trap 1.86 

Wharncliffe  system 44 

Width  of  ditches. 215-218,  226 

Wright,  Gov 17 

Yeomans,T.  G 40,  !03 


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